Can flax be prepared without retting?

—The waste of time and labour in the steeping of flax; the dyeing of the fibres consequent thereon, which must be undone by bleaching; the danger of injuring the staple by the action of putrescent water; and, lastly, the diminished value of flax which is much water-retted, are all circumstances which have of late years suggested the propriety of superseding that proce entirely by mechanical operations. It was long hoped, that by the employment of breaking machines, the flax merely dried could be freed from its woody particles, while the textile filaments might be sufficiently separated by a subsequent heckling. Experience has, however, proved the contrary. The machines, which consisted for the most part of fluted rollers of iron or wood, though expensive, might have been expected to separate the ligneous matter from the fibres; but, in the further working of the flax no advantage was gained over the water-retting proce . 1. Unretted flax requires a considerably longer time for breaking than retted, under the employment of the same manipulations. 2. Unretted stalks deliver in the breaking and heckling a somewhat greater product than the same weight of flax which has been retted; but there is no real advantage in this, as the greater weight of the unretted flax consists in the remainder of ligneous or glutinous matter, which being foreign to the real fibre, must be eventually removed. In the bleaching proce , the water and the alkaline lyes take away that matter, so that the weight of the bleached fibre is not greater from the unretted than the retted flax. 3. The parting of the fibres in the unretted stalks is imperfectly effected by the heckling, the flax either remains coarser as compared with the retted article, and affords a coarser thread, or if it be made to receive greater attenuation by a long continued heckling, it yields incomparably more torn filaments and tow. 4. The yarn of unretted flax feels harder, le glo y, and rougher; and, on account of these qualities, turns out worse in the weaving than the retted flax. Nor is the yarn of unretted flax, whether unbleached or bleached, in any degree stouter than the yarn of the retted flax. 5. Fabrics of unretted flax require for complete bleaching about a sixth le time and materials than those of the retted. This is the sole advantage, but it is more than counterbalanced by the other drawbacks above specified. In Mr. Words worth’s improved apparatus for heckling flax and hemp, a succe ion of stricks is subjected to the operation of several series of revolving heckles of different degrees of finene , for the purpose of gradually separating or combing the long fibres, and dre ing them smooth; while at the same time, the tow or entangled refuse portions of the material taken off from the stricks by the heckle points are removed from the heckles by rotatory brushes and rollers covered with wire cards, and discharged into suitable receivers, whence it may be taken to a carding engine, to be worked in the ordinary way. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0490.png:Heckling machine Fig. 426 enlarged (103 kB) The accompanying figures represent in plan and section, the heckling machine which is made double, for the purpose of allowing two series of stricks of flax to be acted upon at one time. Fig. 426. is a horizontal view of the machine; fig. 427. is an end view, the whole being represented in working order, and the respective letters of reference pointing out corresponding parts of the machine. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0491.png:Heckling machine A A are two large barrels or drums, upon the surfaces of which are fixed longitudinally several series of bra ribs a , b , c , d , e , f , g , h , i , holding heckle points. These ribs are placed at small distances apart round the barrels, all the heckle points standing radially from the axes, and the barrels are mounted upon axles supported by pedestals, with plummer blocks bearing on the rails of the end frames. B B , are two horizontal wheels or pulleys turning upon vertical shafts, which pulleys conduct an endle chain C C C C , carrying the holders, whereon the stricks of flax or other material intended to be heckled are suspended. At one end of the axle of each of the barrels a toothed wheel D D , is made fast, and these are connected by a similar wheel E , and a pinion F , fig. 427. , the latter being fixed upon the axle of the driving rigger G . The power of a steam engine, or any other first mover, being applied by a band and rigger, or otherwise to the axle of G , the pinion F , is driven round, which, being in geering with the toothed wheels E and D D , causes the heckle barrels A A to revolve simultaneously in opposite directions, as shown by the arrows in fig. 427. The stricks of flax intended to be operated upon are severally confined between pairs of clamps k , fastened together, which clamps, with the stricks, are then suspended in their respective holders H H , attached to the endle chain C : the lower portion of the flax hanging down for the purpose of being acted upon by the rotatory heckles, while the upper portions are turned up in loops and confined by spring levers attached to each carrier. The respective holders of the clamps consist of a forked frame, with hooks at the lower parts of their arms, which receive the ends of the clamps k , that confine the strick of flax. From the upper part of each forked frame, a perpendicular pin extends, which pins when inserted into the sockets l l l , in front of the chain, form axles for the frames to turn upon at certain periods of the operation. On the upper end of each pin, a small arm or tappet piece m , fig. 427. , is fixed, standing at right angles to the face of the forked frame of the holder H . Those tappets as the endle chain conducts the holders along at certain periods, come in contact with stationary pins or wipers n n , fixed to the guide rails o , on which the chain C slides; and these wipers acting against the tappets as they pa , cause the holders to be turned round at those periods for the purpose of bringing the reverse side of the strick of flax on to the heckle points. Let it now be supposed, that all the holders connected to the endle chain have been furnished with stricks of flax, or other material to be heckled, and that the barrels A A , are put in motion in the way described, revolving in the direction of the arrows shown in fig. 427. A pinion on the end of the axles of one of the barrels A , will drive a train of toothed geer J K L M and N , on the axle of the latter, of which there is a bevelled pinion taking into a bevelled wheel, turning horizontally at the lower end of the perpendicular shaft of one of the chain pulleys. It will hence be perceived that as the barrels go round, such rotatory motion will be communicated to the pulley B , as will cause it to drive the chain C forward, and by that means conduct the several stricks of flax progre ively along the barrel. When each succe ive holder, with its strick of flax or other material, is brought to the part z , fig. 426. , the fibres come in contact with the rotatory barrel, and first strike upon the series of coarse heckles a a , placed upon an inclined or conical surface of the barrel, by which means the lower ends of the flax in each strick are first acted upon; and as it advances, the upper part, and ultimately the whole length of the long fibres of the suspended strick are gradually brought on to the heckles, which progre ive operation prevents the long fibres from being broken, and causes a smaller quantity of tow to be produced than is usually taken off in any of the ordinary modes of heckling. After the strick of flax or other material has been carried by the travelling chain past the first inclined or conical surface a , of the heckling barrel, it then comes upon the cylindrical part b , of the barrel, which is also furnished with coarse heckles that penetrate and comb down the whole pendant lengths of the fibres. But in order that both sides of the strick of flax may be equally operated upon, the holder is now to be turned round upon its pin or pivot, which movement is effected by one arm of the lever or tappet m , (as the carrying chain moves onward), coming against the stationary pin or wiper n , which changes the position of the holder, as shown at p , in the horizontal view fig. 426. The under part of the guide rail o , upon which the chain slides, is at this part cut away, for the purpose of allowing the holder to turn round horizontally; and a pin or projection at the under side of the guide rail, as the chain continues moving, acts against the side of the carrier frame, and forces it into a position parallel with the chain. The other side of the strick of flax is by these means brought on to the heckles of the second inclined or conical surface of the barrel at c ; and the travelling chain proceeding onward, the fibres of the material are in succe ion pa ed over and combed by the heckles of increasing finene , d , e , and f , on the cylindrical part of the revolving barrel, until the strick having arrived at the second wiper n , the frame or holder is at q , turned round as before, and the reverse side of the strick, or that first operated upon by the heckles a and b , is brought progre ively on to the heckles of increasing finene , g , h , and i ; and having pa ed the last series of rotatory heckles, the holders are in succe ion to be removed from the machine, the material having been sufficiently dre ed. The clamps of the holders are now opened by the attendant, and the stricks of flax or other material are taken out, and again placed between the clamps in reversed positions, in order that the other ends of the fibres may be operated upon. The clamps, with the stricks, are then suspended again in the holders, the uncombed ends of the fibres hanging down upon the heckle barrel. In order to avoid interrupting the continual operation of the machine, it is proposed that the strick, on its second introduction, shall be placed in the holders on the opposite side at y , which is one of the reasons for constructing a double machine, and the strick being thence carried along by the travelling endle chain in the way already described, the fibres will be first brought under the operation of the coarse heckles on the inclined or conical surface of the second revolving barrel, and then of the other heckles increasing in finene on the cylindrical part of the barrel, until having reached the end, as in the former instance, the fibres of the flax may be considered to be sufficiently dre ed, and may then be withdrawn. It may be nece ary here to remark, that as different kinds and qualities of material will require different degrees of working by the heckles, this can be effected by varying the comparative speeds of the travelling holders and the heckle barrels. These comparative speeds, it will be perceived, depend upon the diameters of the wheels and pinions by which the pulley B is driven from the rotation of the heckle barrel. These wheels and pinions are therefore intended to be removed and changed for others of different diameters, as circumstances may require. It will be perceived that the faster the stricks travel through the machine compared to the rotatory speed of the heckle barrels, so much the le will the material be acted upon by the rotatory heckles; but as different qualities of material must be differently operated upon, according to circumstances, it is impo ible to set out any definite speeds or proportions of speed: that will, however, be readily perceived by competent workmen when working at the machine. In the proce of opening the fibres of the material by the rotatory heckles, a quantity of short or loose fibres, as tow, will be taken off the stricks by the heckle points, and will remain adhering to the barrel between the points of the heckles: in order, therefore, to remove this tow, or other loose entangled materials from the heckles, several series of brushes, or blocks, with bristles, are affixed longitudinally to rotatory barrels Q Q . These brush barrels are mounted parallel to the heckle barrels upon axles, supported in plummer blocks affixed to brackets extending from the end frames of the machine. Those parts of the brush barrels which are opposite to the cylindrical portions of the heckle barrel are cylindrical, and those parts which are opposite to the bevels are contra-bevelled, or made as frustums of cones reversed, or in an opposite angle, as r , s , so as to run parallel to the inclined surfaces of the heckle barrels a and c . Upon the periphery of these barrels Q Q , ribs or blocks, with bristles or brushes, are fixed longitudinally, at suitable distances apart, the bristles all standing radially from the axle, and taking into the points of the heckles. Rotatory motions are given to the brush barrels Q Q , by bands pa ing from the riggers at G , over pulleys R R , fixed at the end of each of the axles of the brush barrels. Hence, it will be perceived, that the barrels Q Q will revolve in opposite directions to the heckle barrels, and with sufficient speed to enable the brushes to pa through between the points of the heckles, and in so doing, to remove the tow or other loose matter therefrom. The tow or other loose fibrous material collected upon the brushes is transferred thence on to wire cards placed round the periphery of the barrels S S , which barrels are mounted upon axles parallel to the brush rollers, and turn in plummer blocks upon brackets, extending from the end frames of the machine. These barrels are cylindrical, and covered with sheets of wire cards at those parts which are opposite to the cylindrical portions of the brush barrels, but those portions of the barrel S , which are opposite to the bevelled points r and s , of the brush barrels, are bevelled or made conical at t u , to fit or correspond with the inclined surfaces r and s ; these are covered with sheets of wire card also. Rotatory motions are communicated to the card barrels S S , by bands from the pulley T , fixed on to the side of the toothed wheel M , (see fig. 427. ) which band drives similar pulleys V V , mounted upon studs fixed in the end frame. Upon the side of each of these pulleys V V , a pinion t is fixed, which pinion takes into the teeth of the wheel W , on the end of the axle of each of the card barrels S S ; by which means such slow motions are given to the barrels S , as will allow the brushes of the barrels Q to comb off, and deposit the tow or other fibrous material upon the wire cards as they revolve, and from whence it is to be removed by a doffing comb, and let fall into any convenient receptacle below, in the same way as in ordinary carding engines. The doffing combs, X X X , are formed to the shape of the card barrels, and are attached to straight bars extending along the machine on both sides, which are supported at their extremities by levers Y Y , vibrating upon fulcrum pivots at w w . To these levers perpendicular rods Z Z are connected by joints, and the lower end of each of these rods is attached to an eccentric disk, roller or crank x x , on the axle of the brush barrel; whence it will be perceived that by the rotation of the eccentrics x , the levers Y will be made to vibrate and strike off, or doff the tow or other material from the card barrels, in a similar manner to the operations of the doffing comb of an ordinary carding engine. Mr. Evans’ patent improvements in machinery for preparing and dre ing flax and hemp apply, first, to the operation of scutching, swingling, or beating away the boom or woody particles of the rind which covers the flax, or hemp, in its rough state; and, secondly, to the subsequent operation of heckling, combing, or opening of the fibres of the material preparatory to spinning it into yarns. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0493.png:Scutching machine Fig. 428. represents the scutching or swingling machine, in different positions. Fig. 428. is an end view of the machine in operation; fig. 429. is a front view of the same. The e ential parts of the machine, and those in which the invention especially consists, are two pairs of revolving beaters or scutchers, each formed by long ribs or blades mounted upon arms. The blades of the beaters a a , may be made of ribs of hard wood, or other suitable material, broad but thin, and slightly rounded on their edges, to prevent their cutting the fibres of the flax or hemp when they strike it. The two blades are placed parallel to each other, and mounted upon a hexagonal frame, the arms b b inclining or forming obtuse angles with the blades, and from the middle of the arms short axles c c , extend, upon which the beaters revolve. The axles of both pairs of beaters are mounted in plummer boxes, bearing upon horizontal rails at the ends of the machine, as shown in fig. 428. , and are at such distance apart as will allow of the arms and the beaters of each pair pa ing alternately within those of the other pair as they revolve in opposite directions, which they are enabled to do without coming in contact, in consequence of the inclination of the arms. On the axle at one end of each pair of beaters a toothed wheel d , is affixed, and these wheels being of similar diameters, and taking into each other, cause the beaters to revolve with similar speed in opposite directions, rotatory motion being given to them by a band and rigger fixed upon one of the axles; and in order that the beaters in revolving may not come in contact as they pa , the positions of the two pairs are so arranged that the blades of one shall be in a perpendicular situation, while those of the other are horizontal. The rind of the flax or hemp having been previously broken by any of the ordinary modes of performing that operation, small bunches or stricks of the material are spread out, and their ends confined between the jaws of clamps or holders. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0494a.png:Clamps These clamps or holders differ considerably from the clamps which are commonly used. I shall therefore particularly describe their construction, before showing them in operation. Fig. 430. and 431. are views of the clamp in two different positions; a and b are two boards united together by a hinge c , at top, which of course allows them to shut and open. The lower parts, forming the jaws of the clamps, are made with teeth or indentations, between which parts the ends of the flax or hemp are securely held when the clamps are brought together; d d , are two pieces projecting from the board b , at the end of each of which is an eye shown by dots, and at the back of the board a , (see fig. 430. ,) there is a double armed lever e , turning upon a fixed pin f , which lever carries two circular wedges g g . These wedges pa into the eyes of the pieces d d , when the clamps are closed, and hold them fast. There is a segment ratchet h , at the upper part of the board a , which turns upon a stud i , and is pre ed downward by a spring k . This ratchet receives the end of the lever e , and consequently keeps the circular wedges firm in the eyes, which hold the clamps securely together, and prevents their opening by the shaking of the machine. When it is required to open the clamps, the ratchet h must be raised, and the lever e pushed aside by its handle l , which draws the circular wedges f from the eyes of the pieces d d , and the boards of the clamps immediately separate. For the convenience of suspending the holders in the machines, a piece of sheet iron m , is bent at right angles, and fastened to the back of the board b , as seen in fig. 431. , forming a groove by means of which the holders are enabled to slide into the machine and hang there. These clamps or holders are, when charged with the material, placed in the scutching machine, as shown at e e e in figs. 428. and 429. , bearing upon the edge-rail or bar f . The beaters are now made to revolve in the manner already described, by which the edges of the blades will strike against the pendent stricks of flax or hemp alternately on each side, and beat off, scutch or swingle the boom from the material, and render it fit for the operation of heckling which is to follow. The whole machine is encased with boards, to prevent the inconvenience arising from dust, and an apparatus might be adapted with a blower to conduct away the dust created by the machine, and to discharge it out of the building. In introducing these stricks of flax or hemp into the machine, the holder is placed upon the projecting end of the bar or edge-rail f , and is thence slidden into the machine; and after the material has been sufficiently scutched or swingled, the holders with the stricks are removed through the top of the machine, and others succe ively introduced at the end, and pushed along the rail. If, however, it should be thought desirable, the stricks may be progre ively carried through the scutching machine, and delivered into a similar edge-rail in the heckling machine, there to be operated upon in the way about to be described, by which means the whole proce of scutching and heckling may go on without interruption. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0494b.png:Heckling machine Fig. 432. represents the heckling or combing machine by which the fibres of the material are to be opened, and the tow removed. It is a transverse section, taken nearly through the middle, in a vertical direction. Perpendicular standards form the ends of the machine, which are connected together by longitudinal rods or bars secured by nuts. The heckle points intended to act upon the flax are mounted in the frames a , b , c , and d , and the stricks of flax held in the clamps e , e , e , as described, are suspended from the bar or edge-rail extending through the machine. In order to render the principles of this machine and its mode of working evident, it may be desirable to show in an abstract form the manner in which the heckles are brought into operation upon the flax, and for this purpose two diagrams are delineated in figs. 433, 434. Suppose two sets of combs or heckle points be mounted upon frames a and b , as in these figures, each frame being moveable by means of cranks c , c , and d , d , connected in such manner that they both turn with the same speed in opposite directions, it is evident that every part of the frames and combs will move in circles corresponding to those described by the cranks; the points of the combs travelling in the directions of the arrows, and in circles represented by dots. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0494c.png:Heckles During this movement, whilst performing the first descending quarter of the circle, the cranks bring the frames together as in fig. 433. They begin after this to separate in describing the second descending quarter, and come to the position fig. 434. , when, continuing to revolve, they move further from each other in describing the first ascending quarter of the circle, and arrive at the position where the distance is the greatest; lastly, they describe the second ascending quarter returning to the third position. If, therefore, a strick of flax be suspended between the two sets of combs as in fig. 433. , and the rotatory motion be continued for a sufficient length of time, the flax will be combed in the whole length which is submitted to the actions of the combs, although the points severally have only operated in very small space. Such a system of combs or heckles would make a very good and simple heckling engine, if it were not for the inconvenience experienced by the points dragging some of the fibres with them when withdrawing from the flax, which would produce a great waste of material; and to obviate this it would be nece ary to introduce some contrivance for clearing the points, which must be attended with considerable complication. The plan, however, of the present improved engine, affords the means of producing the same effect by more simple and efficient means. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0495a.png:Combs There are two series of combs, see fig. 435. , attached to two movable frames represented at a and b . Each frame is formed by vertical bars a b , with lateral branches or arms, which carry the heckle points. The branches or arms are parallel, and at equal distances apart, but fixed in such positions in each frame that they may occupy the intervening space when the frames are brought together as fig. 436. The frames are put in motion by means of revolving cranks to which they are attached, as shown in fig. 436. , and when the cranks turn upon their axes, the branches of one frame pa between those of the other without touching. This forms what may be called a set of combs; but one of the improved machines contains two such sets, the points of the combs of one set being opposed to the points of the combs in the other set. The way in which the series of combs that compose one set act upon the flax, is shown in the side view, fig. 435. When the cranks are nearly vertical, the points of both frames are away from the flax, but as the cranks move round in the direction of the arrows, the frames come into another position, and it is then that the points or heckles of one of the frames a , begin to penetrate the flax, and descending they comb or divide its fibres. The rotation of the cranks continuing, the two frames a and b come into the position shown at fig. 435. , the points of the frame a , withdrawing from the flax, and those of the frame b , approaching and pushing the fibres off from the former, which are now combed by the descending stroke of the points. It will hence be perceived that as the combs of the frame a and b , respectively advance, they will push forward the whole of the strick of flax, and render it impo ible for the fibres to be raised and entangled, as each frame in advancing clears the fibres from the points which preceded it. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0495b.png:Heckles A single set, however, of such combs or heckles acting only on one side of the flax, would but imperfectly perform the operation of opening its fibres; it is therefore nece ary, in order to accomplish the desired object in the most effectual way, that two such sets of combs or heckles should be brought to act on opposite sides of the strick of flax, which may be done in the manner shown in the figures. The cranks of the two opposite sets of comb-frames or heckles a , b , and c , d , are connected by a pair of toothed wheels e , f , as fig. 437. , or by four toothed wheels, by which the heckles are actuated at once, the two sets moving in opposite directions, but with similar speeds, and the combing or heckling of the material will go on in the way shown in the figure last indicated. Thus far I have considered only two frames of combs or heckles constituting a set, as acting upon each side of the strick of flax; but in order to perform a greater quantity of work, several sets may be mounted in one machine, working alongside of each other, extending over the breadth of the machine. The combs may then be supported upon three frames, of which the middle one may have branches or arms extending upon both sides, and the other two frames branches extending inwards only. To drive the frames so arranged they must be connected to treble cranks. Such is the principle of the improved machine for combing or heckling, exhibited in the several figures of which I now proceed to describe the particular construction. The machine or engine, fig. 432. , has four sets of combs, acting both at the back and front of the flax; a b are the front set of combs, and c d , the back set of combs; e e e , are the clamps holding the stricks of flax previously scutched, which clamps hang upon the edge-rail. The comb frames are attached at top and bottom to the cranks g g , which are all connected by toothed geer, and driven by a band and rigger. The combs or heckles being put in motion in the way described, act upon the suspended stricks of flax, and upon their fibres, as explained; which stricks are progre ively conducted through the machine by their clamps sliding upon the edge-rail through the agency of the endle chain, to which the clamps are severally attached, by a hook falling into one of the links. The chain is driven by a spur wheel upon the axle of a bevel wheel, which receives a slow rotatory motion through a bevel pinion on the axis of a similar wheel, actuated by another pinion on the end of the upper crank axle. By these means, clamps, with the stricks of flax placed on the edge-rail, are slowly carried through the machine, when the flax will be gradually acted upon first by heckle points of a coarse kind, set wide apart, and ultimately by finer points set near together; after which, the clamp with the strick of flax is discharged from the machine, at the reverse end of the edge-rail. But should the workman neglect to remove the holder or clamp, when it arrives at the end of the rail, the machine would be stopped by means of a jointed lever, having a fork at its end, which pushes the band from the fast rigger on to the loose one, and throws off the driving power. As the combs or heckles, in acting upon the flax to divide its fibres, tear parts of the fibres, and reduce them into tow, the downward motion of the heckles brings the tow with them out of the flax, which is deposited between two fluted rollers p p , fig. 432. , and is by them conducted down to the large drum q , where it becomes lapped in two endle sheets round the periphery of the drum; the one of coarse tow, the other of fine, the adhesion being a isted by a pre ing roller r ; and when a quantity of the tow has been thus accumulated round the periphery of the drum, it may be removed thence by cutting it off in sheets. The fluted rollers, and also the large drum, are driven by geer bands. After the strick of flax has been thus carried through the scutching machine or the heckling machine, the jaws of the clamps are to be opened, the ends of the flax reversed, and the strick again confined in the clamps, so that the other end of the strick may be operated upon in a similar way. In order to prevent any part of the flax from attaching itself to the branches of the movable frames, each frame is furnished with a shield or guard of polished iron or bra plate, which covers a part of the combs and the heads of the screws by which they are fixed to the branches. When the plate metal is bent into the form of a shield, it is slipped on to the branches of the heckle frames, and is sufficiently elastic to hold fast. But it is to be observed, that the edges of the shields are to vary in the extent of their projection according to the situation in which they are to be placed; those which are to shield the upper branches of heckles are to project but little, so as to leave the points uncovered and free to enter the strick of flax; but the shields of the lower heckles are to project considerably over the points, to prevent them from penetrating too far into the fibres, which is so contrived for the purpose of facilitating the falling of the tow, which would otherwise be with difficulty removed from the lower combs, were it thrust upon the whole length of the points. It being advantageous that each strick of flax should be combed near the lower extremities before the middle is acted upon, it is nece ary, in order to obtain this effect, to remove some of the points of the combs in the upper branches. By these means, the operation of the heckles upon the flax begins and proceeds gradually, and ceases at the opposite extremity of the machine in the same gradual way, which is very advantageous in clearing completely the flax from the tow. IV. Flax spinning. —If we compare flax with other spinning materials, such as wool and cotton, we shall find it to po e several characteristic properties. While cotton and wool are presented by nature in the form of insulated fibres, the former requiring merely to be separated from its seeds, and the latter to be purified from dirt and grease before being delivered to the spinner, flax must have its filaments separated from each other by tedious and painful treatment. In reference to the spinning and the subsequent operations, the following properties of flax are influential and important :— 1. The considerable length of the fibres, which renders it difficult, on the one hand, to form a fine, level, regular thread, on the other, gives the yarn a considerably greater tenacity, so that it cannot be broken by pulling out the threads from each other, but by tearing them acro . 2. The smooth and slim structure of the filaments, which gives to linen its peculiar polished aspect, and feel so different from cotton, and especially from woollen stuffs, unle when disguised by dre ing. The fibres of flax have no mutual entanglement, whereby one can draw out another as with wool, and they must therefore be made adhesive by moisture. This wetting of the fibres renders them more pliant and easier to twist together. 3. The small degree of elasticity, by which the simple fibres can be stretched only one twenty-fifth of their natural length before they break, while sheep’s wool will stretch from one-fourth to one half before it gives way. Good flax should have a bright silver gray or yellowish colour (inclining neither to green nor black); it should be long, fine, soft, and glistening, somewhat like silk, and contain no broad tape-like portions, from und is severed filaments. Tow differs from flax in having shorter fibres, of very unequal length, and more or le entangled. Hemp agrees in its properties e entially with flax, and must be similarly treated in the spinning proce es. The manufacture of linen and hemp yarn, and the tow of either, may be effected by different proce es; by the distaff, the hand-wheel, and spinning machinery. It will be unnece ary to occupy the pages of this volume with a description of the first two well known domestic employments. I shall therefore proceed directly to describe the last method, or