Calendering

( Manuf.) The subjection of cloth, paper, and other articles to a machine, which, when so prepared, are calendered, literally meaning hot - pre ed; by pa ing between cylinders or rollers, they acquire a level or uniform surface. After goods are bleached and washed, they are twisted and tangled, so that they would not pa smooth ly between the cylinders. They are previously pa ed over the surface of a water-cistern, and reaching the rollers in a damp state, they unfold themselves readily. The first pair of rollers over which the cloth is pa ed, does not dry or quite smooth it. The rollers in the calender are fixed in a vertical series in an upright frame, the rollers being pre ed forcibly together by lever-power. The lower rollers are generally grooved to remove creases; the upper rollers are smooth. In pa ing between these, the cloth is smoothed and stretched, when it is wound upon a roller, ready to be starched. The cylinders were formerly made of wood, but they are now made of paper and cast-iron, or copper; a cylinder of paper working against one of iron, as the paper cylinders combine some slight degree of elasticity with the extraordinary hardne they po e . These cylinders are made of discs, or plates, or thick pasteboard, with a hole in the centre to receive an iron axis, and others near the circumference, through which long iron bolts, with nuts and screws at either end, are pa ed. Iron plates are added at the ends of this cylinder of pasteboard discs, and the whole is tightly compre ed by the action of the screws. The surface of the roller is rendered true by turning it in a lathe. The iron cylinders which are used in conjunction with those of paper are hollow, and heated by the introduction of steam, or red-hot heaters. The starch is made from flour, fermented and strained to separate the bran; a little indigo is added to give a blue tint, and the liquor thickened with porcelain clay, or calcined gypsum, to give apparent strength and thickne to the cloth, and make it more attractive to the purchaser. The starch is laid on by a stiffening mangle; the cloth first pa ing under a roller into a trough containing the starch liquor, becomes filled with starch, and then carried upwards, pa es between rollers of bra and wood, tightly fitting against each other, by which the superfluous starch is pre ed out, and falls down into the trough below. The cloth is then dried by being pa ed over tin or copper cylinders, heated by steam. Muslins are merely stretched on long frames to dry. The finish for cotton goods is generally by glazing , which gives a bright glo to the material. In this case the cloth must first be damped, which is done by pa ing it over a cylinder, while a brush is at the same time scattering fine sprays of water on the stuff. It is then pa ed between the rollers of the colors, and gets a silky lustre. Cop Calendog'rapher, n. [Lat. calendarium , and Gı graphein, to write.] A maker of calendars. Cal'endrer, n. A calender; one who calenders things. Calen'drical, a. Of the nature of a calendar; belong- ing to a calendar. Calends, or KALENDS, ( ka'lendz,) n. pl. [Lat. calendæ, from calo , to call or proclaim; Gr. kaleō .] ( Chron .) In the ancient Roman calendar, the C. were the first days of each month. The Roman month was divided into three periods by the Calends , the Nones , and the Ides. The Calends were invariably placed at the beginning of the month; the Ides at the middle of the month, on the 13th or 15th; and the Nones ( novem , nine) were the 9th day before the Ides, counting inclusively. Those days comprised between the calends and the nones were de- nominated days before the nones; those between the nones and the ides, days before the ides; and those from the ides to the end of the month, days before the calends. Hence the phrases pridie calendas, tertio calendas , .; meaning the second day before the calends, or last day of the month, the third day before the calends, or last but one of the month (the calends of first day of the following month being included in the reckoning), and so on. the months of March, May, July, and Oct., the ides fell on the 15th day, and the nones, consequently, on the 7th. In all the other months the ides fell on the 13th, and the nones, consequently, on the 5th. The number of days receiving their denomination from the C. depended on the number of days in the month and the day on which the ides fell. For example, if the month had 31 days, and the ides fell on the 13th (as happened in Jan., Aug., and Dec.), there would remain 18 days after the ides, which, added to the 1st of the following month, made 19 days of calends. Hence the 14th day of Jan. was styled the nineteenth before the calends of Feb.; the following day, or 15th of the month, was the eighteenth before the calends , and so on. Caler's Hill, in N. Carolina , a P. O. of Jackson co. Cales'cence, n. [Lat. calescens.] Increasing warmth or heat. Cale'ta, in Texas , a post-office of Trinity co. Calf, ( käf ,) n.; pl . CALVES, (kävz.) [A.S. cealf ; Swed. kalf ; Goth. kalbo ; Ger. kalb ; Gael. colpa ; Sansk. ka- labha , an elephant's calf.] The young of the cow, and of other animals of the bovine genus. representative to Congre in 1811. From that time until his death, a period of nearly 40 years, he was seldom ab- sent from Washington, being nearly the whole time in the public service, either in Congre or in the Cabinet. Few American statesmen have had so much experience in public affairs, or have preserved so high a reputation for ability and uprightne . Though an active party leader, and often engaged in the most exciting political contests, not the slightest imputation was ever thrown upon his private character, or the sincerity and manli- ne of his public conduct. When he first entered Con- gre , the difficulties with England were fast approach- ing actual hostilities, and C. immediately took part with that section-the Young Democracy as they were termed -of the dominant party whose object it was to drive the still reluctant administration into a declaration of 115 m. W.N.W. of Columbia. Calhoun, in Michigan , a S. W. central co.; area , 720 sq. m.; intersected by St. Joseph's and Kalamazoo rivers, and drained by Battle creek. Surface , undulating; soil , luxuriant. White and burr oak are in abundance; also quarries of sandstone. Cap . Marshall. Pop . (1894) 47,471. Calhoun, in Mi i ippi , a N. cent. co., drained by the Yallobusha river. Cap . Pittsborough. Pop . (1890) 14,688. -A post village of Madison co., 16 m. N. by E. of Jackson. Calhoun, in Mi ouri , a post-village of Henry co. Calhoun, in Mi ouri , a station of the Mi ouri Pacific Railroad, in Franklin co., 59 m. W. of St. Louis. Calhoun, in Nebraska , Washington county. More cor- rectly Fort Calhoun ( q . v.). Calhoun, in N. Carolina , a P. O. of Henderson co. Calhoun, in S. Carolina , a village of Anderson district, war, which was pa ed in June, 1812. He afterwards strenuously supported all the nece ary measures for carrying on hostilities with vigor, especially that for chartering a national bank, to aid in providing the re- quisite funds, though the bill for this purpose could not be carried till 1816. At the same period he also sup- ported bills for effecting internal improvements, and for encouraging domestic manufactures, by imposing pro- tective duties-measures which his later policy strongly condemned. When Monroe formed his administration, in 1817, C. became Secretary of War, a post which he filled with great ability for 7 years, reducing the affairs of the department from a state of great confusion to simplicity and order. In 1824, he was chosen Vice-Pre- sident of the U. States under John Q. Adams, and again, in 1828, under General Jackson. With the latter, he did not long continue on amicable political relations, but entered into fierce opposition, when the President, and a majority of Congre , determined to enforce submis- sion to the law of 1828, imposing a heavy protective tariff. It was at this period that C. broached his fa- mous "Nullification Doctrine," which is substantially, that the U. States is not a union of the people, but a league or compact between sovereign States, any of which has a right to judge when the compact is broken, and to pronounce any law to be null and void which violates its conditions. In short, C. was the first great advocate of the disastrous doctrine of Sece ion. From this time forward, that is, for the last 17 years of his public service, C. hardly aspired to be considered a na- tional statesman acting for the whole country; he was content-he was even proud to be viewed only as a Southern statesman. Hence his advocacy of the ex- Calibrate, v. a. To determine the calibre of. treme doctrine of State-Rights; his censure of the Mis- Calibra'tion, n. The art or proce of graduating the sour i Compromise, pa ed 13 years before, when he was estimated calibre of a thermometer-tube. himself in the cabinet; his support of all measures tend- Cal'ice, n. See CHALICE. Calhounsville, or MACALLISTERSVILLE, in Pennsyl vania , a post-village of Juniata co. Ca'li, Calci, n. (Hind. Myth.) The tenth avatar , or incarnation, of the god Vishnu. Cali, ( ka - lee ',) or SANTIAGO DE CALI, a town of S. Ameri- ca, in New Granada, 70 m. N. by E. of Popayan; Lat. 30° 25′ N., Lon. 76°30′ W. It lies on the W. slope of the Andes, and is a wealthy and well-built place. Pop . 4,200. Cal'iatour-wood, n. An East India dye-wood, some- what resembling red sandal-wood. Cal'ibre, Caliber, n . [Fr. calibre , said to be from Lat. æquilibrare, to balance equally, to have perfect equality, because the bore must be equal, else the piece will burst.] (Gunnery.) The diameter of the bore of a cannon, or gun. It is measured in terms of inches, and in smooth-bored guns is always rather larger than the shot. See WINDAGE. -Diameter of a round body, as a bullet. -Compa or capacity of the mind; extent of mental or intellectual qualities. (Used in a figurative sense.) which he advocated these doctrines was his own favorite arena the floor of the United States senate, where he continued for the rest of his life, except for a short time at the close of Mr. Tyler's administration, when he ac- cepted the office of Secretary of State, in order to com- plete a favorite measure the annexation of Texas. At this period of his life, his policy respecting European affairs was pacific; and it should be remembered, that he probably prevented a war with England on the Ore- gon question. He D. at Washington, in 1850. "C's elo- quence," says Daniel Webster, "was part of his intel- lectual character. It grew out of the qualities of his mind. It was plain, terse, strong, condensed, concise, sometimes impa ioned, still always severe. He had the basis, the indispensable basis of all high characters, and that was unspotted integrity, unimpeached honor and character." C. is the author, among other works, of A Disquisition upon Government , and A Discourse on the Constitution of the United States. Calhoun', in Alabama , an E. N. E. county bordering on Georgia.- Area , 1,170 sq. m. Its mountain ridges are full of mineral wealth, iron ores, fine marbles, and lime-stone being most abundant.- Products are corn, wheat, oats, pork, live-stock. Large manufacturing in- terests exist at Anniston (q. v.). -Rivers, the Coosa, Tall a poos a, Tallasahatchee and Chacolochee. - Cap . Jack- sonville.- Pop . (1890) 33,835; (1897) about 37,500. Calhoun, in Arkansas , a S. co., bounded on S. W. by the Washita, and E. by Moro river, the former of which is navigable for steamboats. Surface , undulating; soil , mostly fertile, producing chiefly cotton and Indian corn. Cap. Hampton. Pop . (1890) 7,267. CALICUT, a maritime town, cap. of above dist., and of the prov. Malabar, 102 m. S.W. of Seringa pat am, and 380 W.S.W. of Madras; Lat. 11o 15' N.; Lon. 75° 52′ E. It exports teak, pepper, sandal-wood, cardamoms, cor i, cordage, and wax, but has no good harbor. This was the first place in India made by the Portuguese under Vasco de Gama, who arrived here May 18, 1498. 1509, the Portuguese were repulsed with great slaughter while making an attack on the place. In 1766, C. was taken by Hyder Ali, and, subsequently, Tippoo Sahib destroyed both fort and town, but on the conquest of the prov. by the British, it was restored. Calico is be- lieved to have been first manufactured here, whence the name is derived. Pop . estimated at 24,000. Ca'lid, a . [Lat. calid us .] Hot: fiery; ardent; fervent. Calid as a, ( ka'le - da'sa ,) a much-admired Hindoo poet. Tradition pronounces him one of the nine gems who lived in the court of King Vicramaditya. He wrote sev- eral poems which display a remarkable genius. His Sa- cuntala was translated by Sir William Jones, and was the first work which made his name known to Europe ans. Supposed to have flourished under the reign of Vicrama- ditya II., in the 5th century. "Ice... will not endure the potential calidity of many waters." Browne. Calhoun, in Florida , a W. co., bordering on the Gulf of Mexico; bounded on the E. by Appal a chi cola river, pipe or flue to conduct heat. and on S. W. by St. Joseph's Bay. Cap . Blountstown. Pop . (1890) 2,094. Cal'iduct, n. [Lat. calid us , hot, and duco , to lead.] Cal'if, n. See CALIPH. Calhoun, in Georgia , a S. W. co.; area , 300 sq. m. It is watered by Ich away no cha way creek. Surface , level; soil , productive. Cap . Morgan. Pop . (1890) 8,438. Calfpas'ture River, or North River, in Vir- ginia , rising among the Alleghany Mountains, in Au--A flourishing township and village, capital of Gordon gust a co.; it flows into James River; length abt. 100 m. Calf-skin, the skin of a calf; leather made of the hide of the same. "Thou wear a lion's hide! doff it for shame, And hang a calf's - skin on those recreant limbs." - Shaks. county, 80 miles N. W. of Atlanta, and 50 from Chatta- nooga. -A S. village of Lumpkin co., 50 m. N. N. E. of Atlanta. Calhoun, in Illinois , a W. co.; area , 260 sq. m. Surface , broken. Cap . Hard in. Pop . (1890) 7,652. Calhoun, in Iowa , a W. co., washed by Raccoon river. Cap . Rock well City. Pop . in 1890, 13,100; in 1897 est. at 16,900. Calhoun, JOHN CALDWELL, one of the most eminent American statesmen of the present century, was B. in S. Carolina, Mar. 18, 1782. He graduated with distinction at Yale College, in 1804, and was admitted to the South-A township of Calhoun co. Carolina bar in 1807. After serving for two se ions in -A post-township of Harrison co. IMG:content-0014.jpg:[graphic][subsumed][subsumed] Its area is mountainous, and the Sierra Nevada extends, under different names, and with different altitudes, from the S. extremity of the peninsula to Alaska. The length of this chain, and its constituents, embrace a distance of nearly 500 m. in length through the State, and 300 in width, The highest peaks of this chain are Mount Shasta (some 15,000 feet above sea-level), Spanish Peak, La en's Butte, Pilot Peak, Mounts Tyndall, Whitney, Dana, Lyell, . These vary in altitude from 10,000 to 15,000 feet, and principally take a line running N. 31° W. The Sierra Nevada chain is remarkable for its parallelism and proximity to the sea, its great elevation, and its numerous volcanic peaks, stretching far above the line of perpetual snow. Its distance from the coast varies from 150 to 200 m., so that the area of this portion of the country exceeds 100,000 sq. m. The great mountain wall of this Sierra intercepts the warm winds charged with vapor, which sweep acro the Pacific Ocean, precipitates their accumulated moisture in fertilizing rains and snows upon its western flank, and leaves cold and dry winds to pa on to the E. Hence, the characteristic difference of the two regions, -mildne , fertility, and a superb vegetable kingdom on the one side; comparative barrenne and cold on the other. Between the Lat. of 34° and 41°, a range of lower mountains runs close along the shore, the culminating point of which, Monte Diablo, close to the Bay of San Francisco, attains to the height of 3,674 feet. The valley between this coast chain and the grand barrier of the Sierra Nevada comprises the valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, 500 m. long, and by far the most valuable portion of C. The W. flank of the Sierra belongs to the latter. It is a long, wide, timbered, gra y slope, with intervals of arable land, copiously watered with numerous and bold streams, and without the cold which its name and altitude might imply. It is from 40 to 70 m. in width from the summit of the mountain to the termination of the foot-hills on the edge of the valleys below. Timber ranks first among the products of this slope, the whole being heavily wooded, first with oaks, which predominate to about half the elevation of the mountain, and then with pines, cypre es, and cedars, the pines in majority, and hence called the Pine Region , as that below is called the Oak Re gion , though mixed with other trees. The highest summits of the Sierra are naked, ma ive, granite rocks, covered with snow in sheltered places, all the year round. The cypre , pines, and cedar are between 100 and 250 feet in height, and from 5 to 12 ft. in diameter, with clean, solid stems. Gra grows on almost all parts of the slope, except towards the highest summits, and is fresh and green all the year round, being neither killed by cold in winter, nor dried by drought in summer. The foot-hills of the slope are sufficiently fertile and kindly to admit of good settlements, while valleys, coves, beaches, and meadows of arable land are found throughout. Many of the numerous streams, some of them even considerable rivers, which flow down the mountain side, make handsome, rich valleys, and furnish good water-power. The climate, in the lower part of the slope, is that of constant spring. That portion of the coast-line between Bodega Bay on the S., and Mendocino co. on the N., has, with some exceptions, a bleak and arid appearance. The Salinas and Ru ian River valleys, trending E. and W., are highly fertile, and produce the finest cereals, fruits, and vegetables raised on this part of the coast. Among the inland valleys are those of Napa, Sonoma, Petaluma, Amador, San Ramon, . That division of the Monte Diablo range called the Con tra Costa Hills , presents many lofty peaks, the most elevated of which, Mount San Bernard i no, is 8,500 feet high. Bays , Rivers , Lakes , dc. The principal feature in the country between the Sierra Nevada and the ocean is the great bay or inlet of the sea called San Francisco. It has a narrow entrance, the famous "Golden Gate," (Fig. 479,) abt. a mile in width, in 37° 48′ N. Lat. Within, it expands into a noble basin stretching N.N.W. and S.S.E. 60 or 70 m., and E. about 50 m., being divided into the three great compartments of San Pablo Bay on the N., Santa Clara on the S., and that of Suisun on the E., and affording accommodation for all the navies of all the countries in the world. Its coast-line of about 275 m. is highly diversified, displaying a singularly rich and varied outline. Two great rivers, the Sacramento from the N., and the San Joaquin from the S., fall into this bay. The Suisun, Napa, Sonoma, and Petaluma rivers, all embouch into San Pablo Bay on the N., and are navigable by steamers. Other extensive indentations of the coast of C. are, the bays of San Diego, San Pedro, San Luis Obispo, and Monterey, all to the S. of San Francisco; and To males, Humboldt, and Trinidad to the N. Besides the rivers above mentioned, are the Salinas (navigable), the Pajaro, Santa Inez, Santa Ana, . to the S., and the Ru ian, Mad, and Eel rivers, . to the N. of the Golden Gate. The principal lake is that of Tulare (bulrush), in the upper part of the San Joaquin valley, between 35° and 3612° Lat., surrounded by extensive swamps overgrown with luxuriant bulrushes, and receiving all the streams in the S. end of the valley. In the wet season it attains to a great size, its surplus waters being discharged into the San Joaquin. In the dry, it is much reduced in limit, and is, in some places, fordable. C.po e es many fine cataracts, as the Yosemite Falls (Fig. 478) in the valley (Fig. 2638) of the same name, with a sheer descent of 2,550 feet; the Pohono, or "Bridal Veil," falling 1,000 feet; the Nevada, the Vernal, .- Soil , Vegetation, de . The appearance of the N. and S. portions of this State differs considerably, the former being much better timbered than the latter. Below Lat. 39° the forests are limited to some scattered groves of oak, in the valleys and along the river bottoms; and of red-wood on the ridges and in the gorges of the hills, the latter being sometimes, also, covered with dwarfish shrubs. With these exceptions, the country is clothed in the wet season with the finest herbage, consisting either of different gra es, or of wild oats, which, in the valleys especially, flourish luxuriantly. But in the latter IMG:content-0015.png:[graphic] which are finer and larger than those of the Mediterranean. Of late years, wine-growing is cultivated in the fertile coast-lands lying S. of the Golden Gate, to a great extent, and this industry promises to still further develop itself into a rivalry with the grape products of Southern Europe. - Clim . The temperature of C. is a good deal higher than that in the corresponding latitudes on the E. coast of America. The year is divided into two seasons, - the dry, from May to Nov., and the wet. In the latter, the rains, though not by any means continuous, are frequent and heavy. In the S. parts, the dry season commences earlier and con tinues longer than in the N. During the prevalence of the latter, the district immediately contiguous to the shore is infested with fogs and cold winds from the sea. But within the coast range the climate is delightful; the mid-day heats not being so great as to hinder labor, while the nights are cool and pleasant. C. may be truly termed the "Italy" of this continent. - Zool . Among the wild denizens are found bears, wolves, bighorn, or mountain sheep, otters, beavers, hares, . The elk, the white and black-tailed deer, and the American antelope, roam the forests and gra y plains. The sea contains exhaustle stores of fish. - Minerals and Mining . The vegetable and animal products of this State have, hitherto, been reckoned but of little account, compared with its mineral productions, particularly with the gold found in the beds of some of its rivers and ravines. There are three distinct gold regions in C., though the fist two are connected by outlying "placers" and "leads." 1st. The Eastern Range , extending from the summit ridge of the mountains to within about 25 m. of the edge of the plains. This district po e es about 1,000 sq. m. of available mining territory, including both placers and veins of gold-bearing quartz. 2d. The Middle Placers , situated at about an average distance of 20 m. from the line of the higher foot-hills, and having its W. border within about 4 m. of the edge of the plains. This district covers an area of about 6,000 sq. m., and the mining is mainly gold-washing. 3d. The Valley Mines, which are situated among the lower foot-hills of the mountains, and extend thence westward to the E. edge of the plains of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, to an extent of from 3 to 5 m. These mines extend from N. to S. a linear distance of about 250 m.; and the amount of territory that they occupy is probably not le than 6,000 sq. m. The profitable mining of the deposits, in these, as in middle placers, has required the construction of extended watercourses for the washing of he gold from the sand and gravel. The varieties of mining are: Placer mining , which bears considerable analogy to coal mining in Pennsylvania, adits being driven into the hills, and often through solid rock, to the locality where the gold deposit exists; Hydraulic mining , where a broad, open ditch is carried through the hills, and the sides washed down by directing a powerful stream of water on them; River mining , in which, when the rivers are low, the streams are diverted from their courses by means of flumes, tail-races, ., and the beds of the rivers thus exposed and their sands washed for gold - this can only be carried on for about six months of the year; Gulch mining , in which a large flume is formed below the surface of the earth in such a manner as to receive all the adjacent streams after being used by the miners; and lastly, Quartz mining , which requires a considerable investment of capital, but is profitable. In this description of mining the gold-bearing quartz is crushed by powerful stamps, in mills driven by steam, water, or mule power, to the finene of flour, and then the gold taken up by means of quicksilver by the usual washing proce . The total value of gold produced in C., from the discovery of the mines in May, 1848, to Dec. 31, 1894, and deposited at the U. S. A ay offices, was $767,568,763. Gold is not the only valuable mineral yielded by C. Silver exists, and has been profitably mined in El Dorado, Mariposa, Santa Barbara, and Santa Clara cos.; and most of the gold contains a considerable portion of silver. Many millions' worth have thus been obtained since the period of the gold discovery. Copper, strongly impregnated with gold and silver, is found in Placer, Shasta, El Dorado, and other counties. Quicksilver in the form of cinnabar is largely produced at the New Almaden, Guadaloupe, Aurora, and other mines. Iron, in large quantities and various forms, is found in all the coast range; in Placer co., in a condition approaching to native iron in purity, and in Mariposa co., in the form of hydrate. Sulphate of iron in large quantities occurs near Santa Cruz, and magnetic iron in the same region. The mining of quicksilver, copper, iron, ., has also been very profitable. Platinum is almost as widely dispersed through the State as gold, though in smaller quantities; osmium and iridium are closely a ociated with it. Tin is also found in several parts of the State, and will probably ere long be mined with advantage. Chromium, gypsum, nickel, antimony, bismuth, sulphur, lead, salt, saltpetre, borax, good coal and petroleum, in large quantities, marbles of extraordinary beauty, alabaster granite, buhrstone, lime, ., are the other principal mineral products of the State. Mineral springs abound. It was known from the statements of the earliest visitors of the country, that gold had been found, or was known to exist, in C.; but these statements had either been forgotten, or made no impre ion till late in May, 1848, when the auriferous deposits were discovered, that attracted so much attention, and had such wonderful results. They were found on the S. fork of the American River, a tributary of the Sacramento, at a place now called Coloma. The news of the discovery, and of the unparalleled richne of the deposits, spread with extraordinary rapidity; and before the end of the season about 5,000 men had been attracted to the spot, and their enterprise had been rewarded by the acquisition of the precious metal to the value of $5,000,000. During the sea on of 1849, emigrants of all descriptions, and from the remotest countries, including Americans, Mexicans, Chileños, Europe ans, South-Sea Islanders, and Chinese, crowded in swarms to the Sacramento and its affluents. The foreigners resorted principally to the S. mines, which gave them a great superiority in numerical force over the Americans, and enabled them to take po e ion of some of the richest in that part of the country. After the discovery, in 1851, of the Australian fields, the "gold-fever" in this region somewhat abated in intensity, and its surplusage of miners, or "diggers," found a new vent for their energies. Agric. The husbandry of this State has greatly developed itself within the last few years. Since the comparative subsidence of the gold frenzy, the majority of her citizens have energetically turned their attention to the agricultural resources of the soil, and have achieved wonderful results. In 1867, a breadth of 684,376 acres of wheat yielding about 15,000,000 bushels was harvested; in 1890 C. had 52,984 farms, with a total acreage of 21,427,293, while the product of the land far exceeded in value that of the mines of precious metals. The value of farming property, including land, buildings, machinery, ., was $711,806,340; live stock, $60,259,230; agricultural products, $87,033,290. Since then the value of farming products has largely increased. C. wheat is claimed to be the best raised in the U. S. and commands in Europe the highest market price. The yield in 1895 was 40,097,798 bushels. The yield of barley was over 17,000,000 bushels. Oats are raised in much smaller quantities. Maize does not prosper in this soil, probably on account of the lack of sufficient moisture. Rye and buckwheat are but little attended to. Rich gra es, clovers, and roots are plentiful, and greatly encourage the feeding of cattle as a staple industry; the dairy produce is excellent. Several million pounds of butter are annually produced, a great part of which is exported. Cheese is made in considerable quantities. Sheep-farming is profitable, and turns out many million pounds of wool annually. There were in the State in 1896, 2,962,126 sheep, valued at $5,483,784. Only two States, Texas and Montana, surpa this number, while the value of C. sheep is the highest in the States. Winemaking has become an extensive and important industry. In 1890 there were 200,000 acres in grapes, and there is a much wider area to-day. In addition to the production of wine and brandy, there were exported 1,372,195 boxes of raisins. A new and important product of C. is beet-root sugar, to which its soil seems remarkably well adapted, and in which it has already gone far beyond any of the other States. A statement of three years product will suffice to show the rapid rate of progre : in 1892 the yield was 8,175,438 lbs.; in 1893, 21,801,288 lbs.; and in 1894, 35,088,969. No later reliable statistics are available, but the above will suffice to show a remarkably rapid advance. The raising of tropical fruits, oranges, lemons, figs, apricots, olives, ., and of temperate fruits, such as peaches, pears, cherries, ., has become a highly important feature of C. agriculture, and vast quantities of these fruits, dried or otherwise preserved, are exported annually to the East. The raisins of C. are among the best in the world, while bee-keeping is an industry of great importance, C. honey being of unsurpa ed excellence. The productivene of C. has been enormously increased by the wide-spread practice of irrigation, rendered nece ary by the rainle climate of much of the southern region, and useful wherever applied. The Merced, Kern Co., Fresno and Tulare canals have redeemed fully 1,000,000 acres of fertile land, while irrigation canals elsewhere have added largely to the gain. Much of this irrigation has been achieved by the sinking of artesian wells, of which there are large numbers in the farming districts of the State. Manuf . C. will, no doubt, soon po e manufacturing interests sufficiently extensive to form a powerful element in her system of industrial economy, Woolen goods, blankets, flannels, broad-cloths, ., are produced to a considerable extent, and of admirable quality. At the Paris Exposition of 1867, the blankets and flannels from this State surpa ed all their American competitors. Coarse cotton and flax goods are also manufactured. Flour is manufactured extensively. Iron, machinery, engines, lumber, leather, hides, gunpowder, chemicals, agricultural implements, saddlery, furniture, ., form other and important features in the manufacturing operations of this State.- Finance. The a e ed value of real and personal estate at the end of the year 1896 was over $1,200,000,000; the State debt $2,286,500. The principal towns are San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, Sacramento (the capital), San José, San Diego, Stock ton, Alameda, Fresno, Vallejo, Santa Barbara, .-Government. C. was ceded by Mexico to the United States in 1848. On their arrival in the territory, the new emigrants from the United States, and other distant countries, found themselves in a singular position. There were few inhabitants, and no government or police in the country; and the immigrants were totally unacquainted with the Spanish laws, by which the property and affairs of the settlers had hitherto been regulated. In consequence, the greatest confusion and disorder took place. Congre soon became aware of this untoward state of things, and of the importance of the vast addition made to its territory. But the efforts of the govt. to organize the country into a new State, or to subject it to a constitutional regime, were obstructed at ne . (R.) the outset by the formidable difficulty of deciding whe- Calig'inous, a . Obscure; dim; affected with darkther slavery should or should not be allowed in the new ne . (R.) and unanimously adopting the manly and safe course of forming themselves into a State. In June, 1849, representatives were chosen from all parts of the territory, to meet for the purpose of framing a constitution. The new State was admitted into the Union in 1850, and Sacramento declared to be its capital. By the terms of the State Constitution, the legislature of C. consists of the senate and a embly, and convenes annually at Sacramento on the first Monday in January. The senate is composed of 40 members, chosen from 28 senatorial districts, and the term of office is two years. The lieut.governor is ez - officio president of the senate. The as sembly is composed of 80 members, elected annually, and the presiding officer is chosen from their own body. The pay of the legislative members is, for the first 90 days of the se ion, $10 per diem, and for the remainder of the se ion $5 per day, and milage at the rate of $4 for every 20 miles of travel from their residence by the nearest mail-route to the capital. The constitutional amendments provide for biennial se ions, to commence on the first Monday in Dec. Members of the a embly are to be chosen for two years, and senators for four years. Mining . The débris arising from the effect of hydraulic mining has produced cause for serious alarm in this State. It consists in practically burying large areas of land under the mining débris , or "slickens," and sand. The territory most seriously affected thus far, has been on the Yuba, American, and Bear rivers; the lo thereby to agricultural property was estimated by the State Engineer as reaching $6,000,000 in 1880. This valuation is only what may be called the direct damage. Millions of property in the valley of the Sacramento are threatened with certain destruction. This area alone covers nearly 1500 sq. miles of fertile territory, and the estimated value of this land, together with other similarly situated, is placed at the large sum of $60,000,000; a total certainly worthy the immediate attention of the State authorities. To add to this lo , is the po ible destruction of many of the rivers as water-way. It is a query then for the State to solve, if the destruction caused by the manner hitherto adopted in this proce of mining will not by far exceed the product of these mines. The annual out-put of the hydraulic mines is placed at about $14,000,000. Canals constructed by private companies for purposes of mining and navigation are of extraordinary extent. Steamers make the pa age from New York and New Orleans to Asp in wall, respectively, in about 7 and 4 days; and allowing three days for the conveyance of freight acro the Isthmus, and 10 days for the voyage from Panama to San Francisco, the pa age from New York to the latter is made in 20, and from New Ordeans in 17 days. Hist . C. was discovered by Cabrillo, Spaniara, in 1542. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake sailed along its shores, prolonging his voyage to the 48th degree of Lat. From this circumstance the name New Albion was sometimes formerly given to the country N. of San Francisco. It was not colonized by the Spaniards till 1768. The latter founded establishments in various parts of the country under the names of Presi dios and Mi ions ; the former being military posts, and the latter a sort of semi-religious foundations under the guidance of the Francis can friars. Like the Jesuits, these fathers exerted themselves to instruct the Indians in the art of husbandry, and apparently their efforts were crowned with succe . But here, as in other parts, the civilization of the Indians appears to have been wholly forced and factitious; and when the mi ions were deserted by the friars, the natives relapsed into their original barbarism. Their numbers have since rapidly declined; and it is probable, that at no distant period the race will be entirely extirpated. Americans seem generally to regard them as a sort of feræ naturæ , or at best as irreclaimable savages without the pale of humanity. In 1830, C. began to be resorted to by American and English hunters, and other adventurers; who soon began to think of emancipating themselves from the feeble dominion of Mexico. The latter was overthrown in 1836. Subsequently the country became a prey to all sorts of disorders-adventurers from the U. States and Mexico alternately getting the ascendancy. After the war between the two countries in 1846, the Mexicans having been defeated at all points, finally ceded C. to the Union in 1846. Pop . in 1860 was 379.994; in 1870, 560,285; in 1880, 864,686; and in 1890, 1,208,130, including more Chinese than elsewhere in the U.S. In 1879. C. adopted a new constitution, embodying many novel provisions. Stock gambling, exce ive charges by gas and telegraph companies, and lobbying are prohibited. Judges are not permitted to draw pay, unle under oath that no cause remains undecided, which has been submitted for decision for the period of ninety days. Eight hours is made a legal day's work on all public works. Freight and pa enger rates for all transportation companies is regulated. Citizenship is restricted to those not of Mongolian blood.- C . po e es two superior astronomical observatories, the Lick, in charge of the Univ. of C., on Mt. Hamilton, near Sau José, and that on Echo Mountain, near Los Angeles, under the able direction of Prof. Lewis Swift. California, in Mi ouri , a thriving town, the cap. of Moniteau Co. Pop . (1897) about 2,000. Caliga'tion, n. [Lat. caligatio .] Darkne ; cloud i State; and the disinclination or inability of Congre to Calig'inously, adv. In a dark or obscure manner. (R.) decide this question prevented the admi ion of C. into the Union, either as a State or Territory. Under these circumstances the Americans in the country displayed their singular capacity for self-government, by promptly Cali'go, n . [Lat., darkne .] ( Med . ) Dimne or obscurity of vision. Hence, C. forms part of the name of various diseases of the eye attended with dimne or lo of sight; as, caligo cornea, lent is, humorum, .