ARCHZOLOGY

the study of antiquities, which includes the art and architecture, and the customs, manners, and beliefs of early peoples, such as may reasonably be deducted from ancient monuments, and remains discovered in tombs, caves, river-drifts, atc. Archeology was formerly taken as differing from history, which relies chiefly upon authenticated documents and recorded dates, while archzology seeks to make out a connected story of man’s development on the earth by 4 comparison of objects found in one country, under certain geological conditions, with similar objects found in another country. But the historian of today, in treating of the periods covered by archeology, makes use of its material and conclusions; whence archeology has become, strictly, a department of history. The science of archeology is a ocia~ ted, to a certain extent, with the study of geol., philology, and anthropology. Though first applied only to the antiquities of Greece and Rome, the term is now generally understood to refer to the entire range of human development, from the prehistoric period down to the Middle Ages. The study of archeology may hardly be said to have been taken up systematically before the 19th cent., and it was the Scand in avians who then attempted to reduce the study to an exact science by cla ifying the different periods of man’s development, and attempting the fixing of their dates. Hereunder is given the cla ification arrived at by the Danish archeologist Worsaae: (1) the Early Stone, or Palzolithic Age, dating back to about 3000 B.C.; (2) the Later Stone, or Neolithic Age (2000-1000 B.C.); (3) the Early Bronze Age (1000500 B.O.); (4) the Later Bronze Age (500 B.C. to birth of Christ); (5) the Early Iron Age (A.D. 1-450); (6) Middle Tron Age (A.D. 450-700); (7) the Late Iron or Viking Age (8th-11th cent.). These can only be taken as extremely broad, and by many geologists (whose proper science is the study of the earth’s eee) much-controverted con from this system of study is that mankind has progre ed from a state of savagery to various degrees of culture. This is shown by the domestic implements and weapons used at different periods. Thus it is supposed that wood, bone, or horn were the first substances employed by primitive man for domestic or warlike purposes; these, from their nature, have mostly perished; then came the use of flint, from which were fashioned rude axes, hammers, spearheads, arrow-heads, knives, etc., which in later developments began to a ume some artistic shapes, and were polished and otherwise decorated; then, in due course, followed the use of bronze and iron, as indicated in the foregoing table, It should be borne in mind, however, in using the above definitions, that the term ‘Age,’ as applied to archeology, cannot be held to cover any definite period of time, inasmuch as the Early Bronze Age in one country may be contemporaneous with the Stone Age of another. It may be noted that in Scand in a via, and in Scotland, no evidence of man’s occupation is yet forthcoming of an earlier period than the Neolithic Age. In dealing with so vast a subject as archeology it is not po ible here to do more than indicate the main lines of study to be followed, but many of its branches have been dealt with under their several heads. Since the establishment of the London Society of Antiquaries in 1751, and that of Scotland twenty-nine years later, the study of archeology has spread rapidly, and flourishing societies of like kind are to be found in most provincial centers; while chairs and lectureships in archeology exist at the leading Brit. universities. Archeological research was greatly stimulated in the years following the World War. It was especially true in those countries in which the Turkish Government had imposed restrictions or prohibitions upon the carrying on of excavations. This was especially the case in Palestine. When this country came under the political control of Great Britain, permi ion was freely obtained to carry on archeological explorations, and these were begun at once in several important sites, including the ancient city of Beisan, and on the site of Askalon, the famous old Philistine city. Sufficient progre had not been made in 1923 to indicate whether the anticipated discoveries would be made. Explorations in' Egypt continued to reveal rich results. The expedition of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, carried on work in 1922-23. The most sensational discovery po ibly ever made in Egypt, however, was the finding, in December, 1922, of the tomb of King Tut ankh a men, who ruled in the 18th dynasty, about 1360 B.C. The discovery was made by Howard Carter, who had searched for it for many years. The tomb was found practically intact, although there were evidences that it had been entered previously, although nothing important had been taken away. In the outer chambers of the tomb were found treasures of rare beauty and value, including clothing, objects of art, ve els, beds, thrones, chairs, and quantities of ve els of pure gold. The monetary value was many millions of dollars. This is greatly exceeded, however, by the historical value. Some scholars have advanced the theory that Tut ankh a men was the Pharaoh of the Oppre ion. Interesting excavations were also undertaken on the site of ancient Carthage. These revealed three cities within 20 feet of the surface. One of the mining discoveries of great interest was one of the galleons of the Spanish Armada, which was found in the mud of Tobermory Bay, Scotland. Several of the mounds in the Mi i ippi valley were excavated during Saye Nothing of great importance was ‘ound.