English Drama

The English drama was founded upon the Spanish model. Ferrez and Porrex, the first regular English tragedy, was acted before Queen Elizabeth on Jan. 18, 1561, by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple. A version of the same piece was acted in one of the minor London theaters in 1854, but without succe . Gammer Gurton's Needle, which was said to be the work of John Still, Master of Arts, and afterward bishop of Bath and Wells, was first performed in Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1575. The jest of the piece turns on the lo and recovery of the needle with which Gammer Gurton repaired the breeches of her man Hodge. The popular characters are the Sturdy Beggar, the Country Vicar, The Clown, and the Shrew. Thus we see that, at the very commencement, English comedy was founded on characters of middle and humble life. It is to be remarked, that as the first English tragedy had no intermixture of comedy, so the first English comedy had no intermixture of tragedy. The influence of the plays of Shakespeare upon English poetry, the drama, and the world at large, is too universally recognized to need comment in a work of this description, even if the space prescribed to us were unlimited. It is enough to say that his transcendent genius and matchle power created a model which never has been, and perhaps never will be, equaled. His historical plays throw a light upon his country's history; his tragedies are acknowledged masterpieces by the highest critics of any civilized nation; and his romantic dramas and comedies, though not faultle , abound with the errors of a genius incapable of self-control, and too powerful to submit to the trammels imposed upon the dramatist by the pedantry of inferior minds. The tragedies of Jonson are distinguished for a sublime expre ion of moral sentiment. In comedy he occasionally followed the older Grecian school, as in the Tale of a Tub, where, in order to ridicule his enemy, Inigo Jones, he trod in the path of Aris toph anes. In the Staple of News and Cynthia's Revels he introduced allegorical characters and personified abstract pa ions. In tracing the history of the English drama, we perceive the immense influence of the plays of Shakespeare over his succe ors. Mas singer, a man of considerable genius, endeavored to unite the romance of Shakespeare to the realistic humor of Jonson; and though he has to an extent succeeded, his love pa ages are infinitely le interesting and his villainies more го volting than are those of his two models. Beaumont and Fletcher, both men of remarkable talent, grafted upon Shakespeare's method of composition the boundle license of the Spanish school. Sometimes almost discarding probability, violating character, and therefore weakening, if not destroying, the interest of the plot, they compensate for these faults and irregularities by admirable descriptive pa ages, elegant wit, pa ionate and tender dialogue and rich humor. The plays of Shirley, of Ford, of Webster and Decker, although now forgotten by the mere playgoer, and holding no place upon the boards of the theater of the present day, abound with admirable pa ages and detached scenes of singular merit; and it is, doubtle , to the fact of the rude apology for scenery and the eye of the spec tat or being entirely ungratified in the English play. houses of the 16th and 17th centuries, that we are indebted for that brilliant band of distinguished poets known as the Elder Dramatists. Audiences crowded to the theater, not to gaze on splendid scenery, but to listen to the literary production of the author and to the declamatory graces of the player. The great and original school, founded by Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, and followed by Mas singer, Beaumont and Fletcher, and others, closed with the outbreak of the civil war in 1642. A proclamation shut up the theaters and dispersed the players, almost all of whom took up arms for King Charles I., in whose service many of them perished. One Robinson, an actor at the Black friars theater, was killed by Col. Harrison, the regicide, in cold blood, Harrison declaiming the text from Scripture, "Cursed be he who doeth the Lord's work negligently." The most ancient English playhouses were, according to Malone, the Curtain, in Shore ditch, and the Theater. In the time of Shakespeare there were no le than nine theaters open; three being private houses one in Black friars; the Cockpit, or Phoenix, in Drury Lane; and one in Salisbury Court, Fleet Street. The six public theaters were the Globe, the Rose, and the Hope, on the Bank-side; the Red Bull, and the Fortune. In the winter of 1648 the players at the Cockpit, while acting the Bloody Brothers, were surprised by a party of soldiers in the middle of the play and carried to prison in their stage dre es. On Feb. 11, 1647, an act of Parliament was pa ed, that all stage galleries, seats and boxes should be pulled down by warrant of two justices of the peace; that all actors of plays for the time to come, being convicted, should be publicly whipped; and all spectators of plays should, for each offense, pay five shillings. The Restoration may be said to have inducted the second period of the English drama. Charles II., who in his exile imbibed French tastes, brought with him to England a relish for the beauties of the French stage. Dryden, Howard, and the authors of the day, fostered this taste, and heroic plays were applauded by both the court and the city. The heroic play was a forced and unnatural mixture of French sentiment, English noise and bustle, stifled dialogues, drums and proce ions. The heroes and heroines were all of one exactly virtuous pattern; valor was entirely refined, and love of the most impo ible purity. At the same time, comedy deserted delineation of character and construction of plot, and endeavored to shine only in dialogue. The atmosphere of a licentious court infected the stage; and authors strove by a succe ion of smart jests and loose epigrams to amuse the wits of the town rather than to point a moral or wing a satirical truth. About this time actre es first appeared upon the stage. Before the Restoration the characters of women had been played by boys and young men. It is to this introduction that we owe the brilliant display of pa ionate tenderne evinced in the female characters of Otway, and, despite some rant and fustian, of Lee. The 18th century ushered in genteel comedy, an entertainment that exibited the foibles of the higher cla es; comedy of intrigue, in which plots and surprises succeed each other; and English opera. To Garrick the stage is indebted for a revival of the plays of Shakespeare; and to Sheridan for a description of comedy that, to the polish and wit of the authors of the Congreve and Farquhar school, added humorous and characteristic dialogue. The comedies of Goldsmith are unsurpa ed in the richne of their humor, while the two Colmans contributed admirable comedies to the rich repertory of the drama. The drama in Italy can scarcely be said to have produced any writers of the highest order, the best names being Gold on i in comedy, and Alfieri and Manzoni in tragedy; and the Germans were late in developing dramatic skill, their works being imitations of the French until the period of Le ing. At a later date, in the hands of Goethe and Schiller, the art reached an advanced stage of merit. Scand in a via has also produced dramatic writers of high worth, of whom we may particularly mention the Danish writer Ohlmslager. It is not our purpose here to speak of the recent drama, other than to say that it has largely descended from its former standing as a field of literature and become merely a means of theatrical entertainment; so close attention being given to adaptation to the stage, that literary excellence is to a considerable extent lost sight of. This is not wholly the case; many modern English plays can be read as well as seen with enjoyment. Victor Hugo and other French writers have produced readable dramas, while among American writers we may instance Boker as an author whose works are instinct with some of the old poetic spirit of the drama. A cla of dramatic works has also been produced almost purely literary in design and unadapted to representation. Among those of an older date may be instanced the admirable Cenci of Shelley, whose subject removes it from the stage, and the literary dramas of Byron. A new school of authors of this type has recently arisen, of whom the best known writer is the Norwegian dramatist Ibsen, in whose works the most vital modern social questions are freely handled, and subjects of ethical interest exploited in a manner that renders their treatment unsuitable to stage representation, though of living interest to readers. Such works as these cannot fairly be cla ed with the drama of which theatrical performance is an e ential element and are properly set aside as a distinct cla of dramatic poetry, being dramas only in form, not in e ential purpose and significance. Drap d'ètè ( dra - da -ta'), n. [Fr.] A light twilled woolen fabric, resembling merino. Dra'per, ANDREW SLOANE, LL.D., lawyer and educator, born at West ford, N. Y., June 21, 1848; studied and practiced law in Albany, N. Y. Was a member of the New York Legislature (1881). Appointed by President Arthur one of the judges of the U. S. Court of Alabama Claims. He took a deep interest in the subject of education, was member of the Albany School Board, and Supt. of Public Instruction in N. Y., (1886-92); afterward held a like position in Ohio, and in 1894 was appointed president of the University of Illinois. He wrote much on the subject of schools, teaching, responsibilities of trustees, . Among these treatises are: The Power and Obligations of Teachers ; Authority of the State in the Education of her Children, and School Admin i str a tion in Large Cities. Draper, JOHN CHRISTOPHER, M.D., LL.D., physiologist and chemist, born in Prince Edward co., Va., March 31, 1835, a son of John William D. Graduated (1851) from the medical department of the University of the City of New York and became profe or of physiology in that institution. He also held profe orships of chemistry in Cooper Union and the University Medical College; and of physiology and natural history in the College of the City of New York. He was the author of On Respiration; Text Book on Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. Died in New York city, Dec. 20, 1885. Draper, LYMAN COPE LAND, antiquarian, born in Erie co., N. Y., Sept. 4, 1815. Removed with his father to Lock port, where he attended the village school, worked on his father's farm and clerked in stores (1830-33). Afterward went to Mobile, Ala., and (1835-36) was a student at Granville College, Ohio. In 1838 he began corresponding with Western pioneers, edited a paper in Mi i ippi (1840), and was clerk in the office of the Erie canal (1842). He spent ten years in Philadelphia searching for historical data. Went to Madison, Wis. (1853), as Secretary of the State Historical Society. Was State Supt. of Instruction (1858-9) returning the next year to his former office. Declined a reëlection in 1887. The degree of LL.D. was conferred on him (1881) by the University of Wisconsin. He published Madison , the Capital of Wisconsin; King's Mountain and its Heroes, . Died Aug. 26, 1891. Draper, WILLIAM F., soldier, manufacturer, and diplomat, a native of Ma achusetts, from which State he entered the Federal army as a volunteer at 19, and served through the war, rising gradually in rank from second lieutenant to brigadier-general. He was twice wounded, at the battle of the Wilderne and the Pegram's Farm engagement. After the war Gen. D. engaged in the manufacture of cotton machinery; in 1876 became a delegate to the Republican Convention at Cincinnati, and in 1890 president of the Home Market Club, of Boston. His first political service was as a member of the Fifty-third Congre , in which he served on the Committees on Patents and Foreign Affairs. In 1897 he was appointed, by President McKinley, U. S. Amba ador to Italy. Dravidians. The name given to a large section of the population of Hindu stan, of somewhat problematical origin, several writers claiming that they are of Aryan stock and their language an offshoot of Sanskrit, while others, including Max Müller, consider them of independent origin, seeming Sanskrit linguistic elements having been borrowed. They number in all about 50,000,000 and are perhaps of Mongolian origin, not aborigines of India, but the descendants of immigrants who preceded the Aryans. There are twelve separate languages or dialects spoken by the D. , of which the principal are the Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, and Malayalam. Tamil, which is spoken by 16,000,000 people, is perhaps the oldest form, and was spoken in India before the Aryan invasion. Telugu is spoken by as many people, and for euphony and melody holds the first place, having received the designation of the "Italian of the East." D. literature is principally confined to the Tamil tongue, and includes some ancient poetical works with some valuable modern productions of eighteenth century date. Dredg'er, n. (Hydraul. Eng .) A machine for the removal of obstructions to navigation, or clearing and deepening bodies of water for any purpose. Of these the earliest and simplest form is that known as the bag and spoon dredge , formerly much used in excavating the canals of Holland. It consists of an iron ring of about 2 feet diameter, with a cutting edge and carrying a leather sack. It was dragged along the bottom by a rope attached to a moving scow, being drawn up and emptied at intervals. The scraper , another primitive form, is an iron scoop attached to a beam, whose upper end is fixed to a scow, and drags off the mud from the bottom as the scow is slowly moved. A more advanced form, the ladder or bucket dredge , consists of an endle chain which works over wheels or pulleys capable of being arranged to suit various depths of water. The surface of the chain carries a series of buckets or scoops which take up the mud as they scrape the bottom, and discharge it, while rounding the upper pulley, into troughs leading to scows alongside. Dredges of this character, operated by steam power, are rapid and efficient, and have been widely employed, as in the excavation of the Suez canal. In some instances a large wheel replaces the endle chain, the wheel being 25 feet or more in diameter, according to the depth, and bearing a series of buckets on its outer surface. The wheel is set in a well in the boat, the axle working in shafts which can be raised or lowered to adapt the wheel to the depth of water. As the wheel turns, the buckets scoop up mud from the bottom; and, when they reach a certain height, an automatic device unlatches their hinged bottoms and permits their contents to discharge into a shoot leading to an adjoining scow. Another usual form of dredge is known technically as the clam-shell. This is composed of two parts, hinged together, and so arranged as to open and close automatically when at the proper height or depth. The bucket, suspended from the end of a crane-jib, is open as it descends, and continues so until its edges have sunk into the mud of the bottom. It is then closed, being filled with mud in the closing proce . Finally it is drawn up, swung round over a scow, opened, and its contents discharged. If the material be hard and compact, the cutting edges of the bucket are provided with sharp teeth. If stones, logs, or similar material are to be raised, strong grappling irons replace the bucket. The single-scoop or dipper dredge consists of a scoop-like bucket, with a swinging door at its back, closed by a catch which can be readily opened for a discharge of its contents. It is operated from a crane and works between two parallel timbers. Another cla of machines, known as current dredges , have for their purpos0 the loosening of silt to be swept away by the current. As the surface velocity much exceeds that at the bottom, these dredges must be so arranged as to exert a lifting action on the silt, bringing it within the influence of the stronger current. Many devices have been invented for this purpose, more or le effective, they being principally of value where the character of the stream is such that the material raised is not likely to sink into a new bar lower down. Current dredges are cheap, rapid, and in many instances very useful. Steam Pump and Hydraulic Dredges. Dredges of this character act on the principle of pumping up the sand from the bottom through tubes and discharging it at a distance from the bar, or on shore. In these the bottom of the frame-work is fitted with teeth, for loosening the sand, which, semi-liquid with water, is drawn up in a continuous stream through the suction pipes. One form of this dredge, invented in California, is provided with an apparatus to cut a deep swath in the substance of the bar. From this the earth, mixed with water, is fed to the delivery pipe, up which it is drawn by a centrifugal pump. These machines work very rapidly, one of them having moved 165,000 cubic yards of material in a single month. The utility of dredging operations depends upon the rapidity with which silt is re-deposited on the bar. At points on the seaboard, through the action of waves and currents, new earth is deposited as fast as the old can be removed. In such cases dredging is usele , and from this cause many attempts in the U. S. to dredge ocean bars have proved failures. Such efforts can only be succe ful where the silt-depociting currents are deffected by supplementary structures. Dres'den Porcelain. See CERAMICS. Dre 'er, HENRY ERLES, ornithologist, born at Thirsk, Yorkshire, Eng., May 9, 1838; educated in England Germany and Sweden. He gave his leisure time to the study of birds, especially those of Europe; and wa made a member of the council of the Zoological Society of London, president of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, and secretary of the British Ornithologists' Union. He has published A History of the Birds of Europe, a monographic work in eight quarto volumes, with colored plates. Another important work is A Monograph of the Bee-Eaters. Drew, JOHN, comedian, born Sept. 3, 1825. He made his first appearance in the Bowery Theater, New York, in 1845; acted in Albany; and from there went to Philadelphia, joining William Wheatley in the management of the Arch Street Theater. He acted in the principal cities of the U. S. and visited England and Australia. Died in Philadelphia, May 21, 1862.-His wife, LOUISA, was for a full generation one of America's leading actre es, achieving much succe in high comedy roles, especially that of Mrs. Malaprop , in The Rivals , which character she a umed as late as 1895 in a number of special performances by a cast embracing such other stage veterans as Joe Jefferson, . Mrs. D. managed the Arch Street Theater, Philadelphia, for many years after her husband's death. Drew, JOHN, actor, son of John and Louisa D. , was born in Philadelphia, Nov. 13, 1853, and educated at the Episcopal Academy. His first appearance on the stage was at the Arch Street Theater in the character of Plumper , in Cool as a Cucumber. He played for a short season at the same theater with Edwin Booth. He visited Europe in 1892 with Daly's company, playing Shakespeare an and other cla ic roles . He began his career as a star in The Masked Ball in the autumn of 1892. Dris'ler, HENRY, LL.D., scholar, born Dec. 27, 1818; graduated at Columbia College (1839); taught for several years in its grammar school, and was appointed (1843) tutor of Greek and Latin in the College. In 1857 he was made profe or of Latin, and on the death of Dr. Charles Anthon (1867), he was transferred to the chair of Greek. Was dean of the School of Arts (188994). He a isted Dr. Anthon in the preparation of his numerus text-books in cla ics, and is still general editor of Harper's Cla ical Series. Among his important contributions to cla ical literature are the editions of Liddell & Scott's Pa ow's Greek Lexicon (1846), and Yonge's English -Greek Lexicon (1870). Drontheim ( dront'him ), or TRONDHJEM, a seaport town of Norway, beautifully situated on a circular bay at the mouth of the Drontheim Fiord; Lat. 63° 25' 48" N., Lon. 10° 23′ 45" E. The most remarkable edifices and establishments are the cathedral, built in 1033; the palace of the old Norwegian kings, of which D. was the capital; and a museum, including a picture gallery and a library. The breweries are famous for a beer which is largely exported. The building-yards fit out ve els which bear a high name for their sailing properties. Pop . (1895) 31,200. Droylsden ( droilzděn ), a manufacturing town of England, County Lancaster, 4 m. E. of Manchester. Cotton-spinning is conducted here on an extensive scale. Pop . (1895) 12,810. Droy's en, JOHANN GUSTAV, historian and philologist, born in Pru ia, July 6, 1808. He received an academic training in Berlin, and was appointed profe or extraordinary in the University (1835); subsequently went to Kiel, where he took an active part in the revolution of 1848, on account of which he was obliged to leave the city, going to Jena and returning to Berlin in 1859, where he was made profe or of history. Among his various historical works, in German, are the History of Alexander, the Great; a History of Hellemsm; and a History of Pru ian Politics. He also made metrical translations of Æschylus and Aris toph anes . Died July 19, 1884. Droz ( dro ), ANTOINE GUSTAVE, novelist, b. at Paris, June 6, 1832; studied art, but afterward made literature his profe ion, in which field he was very succe tul. His works include: La Vie Parisienne; Monsieur, Madame et Bebe; Entre Nous; Autour d'une Source; Un Paquet de Lettres; L'Enfant , . Died at Paris, Oct. 23, 1895. Drying Machines. Of these there are several kinds in use. In case of the drying of long webs of calico or other fabrics, the machine used consists of a series of metal cylinders revolving in an iron frame and heated by steam introduced interually; the rollers being arranged sometimes vertically, sometimes horizontally, and the cloth pa ing over them in a continuous web. What are known as centrifugal D. M. , or hydro-extractors, consist of a circular wire basket mounted on a shaft and set in a close metal jacket. The materials to be dried are placed in the basket, which is made to revolve at a speed of from 700 to 2000 revolutions per minute. Centrifugal force causes the water to fly off, and it is removed by means of a discharge pipe. This kind of machine, modified to meet various requirements, is very largely used, it being adapted to many purposes. In the Blackmann air-propeller, wool and other textile material is spread over a perforated surface which is in connection with a revolving propeller placed at the top of a vertical shaft. This apparatus draws heated air through the wool, carrying off its moisture, and expelling the moist air from the mouth of the shaft. Yarns are often dried in a hot chamber, through which they are slowly drawn by a continuous chain, on which are rollers carrying the hanks of yarn. In papermaking machines the drying apparatus consists of a series of drums on whose circumference are wooden spars. These are mounted in horizontal succe ion on an iron frame, and move at a slow speed as the web of paper pa es over them. Within the drums are fans which drive heated air against the inner surface of the paper. Dry Plate. ( Photog .) A sensitized plate which does not require the use of a bath before its employment in photography. Du'aline, n. ( Chem .) A blasting powder chiefly consisting of nitrate of ammonia and very fine sawdust, which has been acted upon by nitro-sulphuric acid. It is said not to be decomposed by accidental contact with acids, and not to lose any of its properties in cold or heat. Its explosion does not produce any noxious gases, and it will burn in the open air without exploding. D. has advantages over ordinary gunpowder in cases where the blasting is to be done in soft stone or coal; but where the labor of boring is difficult, or where the gaining of time is of much importance, and where the blasting is carried on in very hard and solid rock, such as in most forms of tunneling, dynamite is to be preferred. Duane', JAMES Chas am, soldier; born at Schenectady, N. Y., June 30, 1824; graduated at West Point in 1848; served throughout the Civil War, winning distinction for gallantry and skill, and attaining the rank of brigadier-general. Since the war, has served in various government engineering works, and in 1886 was made chief of engineers. Retired June 30, 1888, and was appointed commi ioner of the Croton aqueduct, in New York. Dublin, in Texas , a thriving city of Erath co., 90 m. by rail S.W. of Fort Worth; has a large trade in cotton and other products; some manufacturing interests. Pop. (1897) about 3,000. Dubois', in Pennsylvania , an important post-borough of Clear field co., on branch of the Alle. Val. R.R., 129 m. E.N.E. of Pittsburg; has several coal mines and immense lumbering interests. Pop . (1897) abt. 7,500. Duclerc, CHARLES THEODORE EUGÈNE, statesman, born at Bagnères-de-Bigorre, France, Nov. 9, 1812; was editor of Le Bon Sens , in Paris, and in 1840 contributed to the National a series of important financial articles. He was active in the Revolution of 1848, and was a representative from the departments of the Landes and the Ba es-Pyrénées, leading the Republican left, and figuring prominently in debate. Was elected vice-presi dent of the National A embly (1875), and on Dec. 10, of the same year, senator for life. Became Premier on Aug. 7, 1882, but its persistent neglect to expel from French territory princes who might be dangerous to the republic and its refusal to consent to a compromise bill caused the fall of his not over-strong ministry. Died July 21,1888. Ducrot ( du - kro ), AUGUSTE ALEXANDRE, soldier, born at Nevers, France, Feb. 24, 1817; educated at Saint Cyr. He was appointed general of division, June 7, 1865, and served in the Franco-German war. Declining the favors which the Germans offered the French officers who fell into their hands, he was imprisoned at Pont-à-Mou on after the battle of Sedan. From this prison he made his escape, and succeeded in reaching Paris. Subsequently commanded at Rueil, La Jouchère, and Buzenval, and after peace was declared was appointed commander-in chief of the Eighth army corps, stationed at Bourges. He had been strongly opposed to the re-establishment of the Empire. His works include Défense de Paris ; La Verite sur l'Algérie; La Journée de Sedan, . Died in Paris, Aug. 17, 1882. Dude, n. A term which came into use in London and elsewhere about 1880-82, in connection with the affectations of the æsthetic cult then somewhat in vogue. It probably had reference to the peculiar dre , or duds , of the æsthetes of that period, and was later applied to any person whose attire was constantly in the height of fashion, or evidently designed to attract attention by its novelty or sumptuousne . By extension it is now applied to any person whose affectations in style or unusual niceties of manner or expre ion are calculated to attract special notice; as, a literary dude ; a clerical dude, . Dudeen' or Dudheen', n. [ Irish .) A clay tobacco pipe with a short stem. Dudette', n. A young dude. (Humorous.) Dudine ( du -deen'), n. A feminine dude. Du'dish, n. Like a dude; resembling, or having the characteristics of a dude. Du'dism or Du'dishne , n. The manner, appear- ance, or characteristics of a dude. Dud'ley, CHARLES EDWARD, an American phil an- thropist, born in Staff ords hire, Eng., 1780. Emigrating to the U. S., he became a resident of Albany in 1812, and filled the office of U. S. Senator from 1828 to 1833. He founded at Albany the well-known Dudley Observa- tory, which was largely enriched after his death by benefactions from his widow. Died 1841. Du'er, JOHN, a distinguished American jurist, born at Albany, N. Y., 1782. After serving as one of the Commi ioners appointed to revise the statutes of that State in 1825, he became chief-justice of the Superior Court of the city of New York in 1857. His reputation chiefly rests upon his Law and Practice of Marine Insurance, a standard authority upon the subject of which it treats. Died 1858. Duff, ALEXANDER, D.D., LL.D., Presbyterian mi ionary, born near Pitlochrie, Perth shire, Scotland, April 26, 1806; educated at St. Andrews, and for many years labored succe fully as a mi ionary in India. He believed education to be of great value in secular matters, and strongly advocated its development. In 1843, after the disruption of the Scottish Church, he was the chief agent of the mi ion maintained at Calcutta by the Free Church. He visited the U.S. in 1854, and afterward returned to India (1855), remaining eight years; subsequently became profe or of Evangelistic Theology in the theological free schools of the Free Church. Died in Edinburgh, Feb. 12, 1878. Duffer, n. A clumsy or thick-headed person, especially one who is incompetent to discharge the duties which devolve upon him (U. S. slang). - A peddler or hawker (Eng. slang.)-A pigeon of common stock as distinguished from one of a fancy or finely bred variety. Duffy, SIR CHARLES GAVAN, statesman and author, born in Monaghan, Ireland, 1816; was one of the founders of the Nation , a paper which at first gave fervent support to O'Connell. This caused his arrest, and at his trial he was convicted of sedition, but on appeal the House of Lords quashed the conviction. He was acquitted a second time in 1848, when he was tried with the leaders of the Young Ireland party for treason felony. In 1852 he was returned to Parliament, resigning in 1856 and emigrating to Australia. After holding a number of offices in that colony, he became Prime Minister in 1871. He has published Four Years of Irish History ; and The Ballad Poetry of Ireland. Dugout, n. A rude cave or dwelling formed by an excavation on a hillside or elsewhere, the opening thereto being faced with logs. A cave intended for protection from tornadoes, or for storage purposes (U.S.). See also SECTION I. Duhring, Louis A., M. D., dermatologist, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 23, 1845; received his education in the University of Pennsylvania and afterward became profe or of dermatology in that institution. The British, French and New York Dermatological Societies made him a member, and he has been president of the American Dermatological A ociation; author of a Treatise on Skin Diseases; Atlas of Skin Diseases; and Epitome of Skin Diseases. Dumas ( du - ma '), JEAN BAPTISTE, chemist, born in Alais, France, July 14, 1800; studied pharmacy in Geneva and afterward in Paris, and was appointed profe or of chemistry in the École centrale des Arts et Manufactures , and at the Sorbonne; has done much for the development of the science of chemistry. In 1840 he became one of the editors of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique , and was appointed (1849) Minister of Agriculture and Commerce. Died at Cannes, April 11, 1884, Du Maurier, GEORGE LOUIS P. B., artist and novelist: of French descent; born in England, March 6, 1834. He was a pupil of Gleyre, intending to make painting his lifework, but a severe affection of his eyes in youth forced him to alter his plans for a time. After recovery he devoted himself principally to black-and-white work, making a specialty of book illustration. Among his earliest work was the illustration of an English publication entitled Once a Week , and after 1862 he contributed many illustrations to Punch , on which work his fame was chiefly made. He also illustrated Douglas Jerrold's Story of a Feather , and other books, including Thackeray's Henry Esmond. He later contributed humorous illustrations to Harper's Magazine , and in 1891 entered the literary field with a remarkable novel entitled Peter Ibbetson. This was followed in 1894, by Trilby , whose succe was most pronounced; and in 1896, by The Martian. Died Oct. 8, 1896. Dumichen, JOHANNES, Egypt ologist; born at Weizholz, near Gro glogan, Silesia, Oct.. 15, 1833; educated at the Universities of Berlin and Breslau, and again attended the former university from 1859 to 1862, devoting himself to the study of Egyptian antiquities. He pa ed many years in archeological research in the valley of the Nile, and, with the exception of Lepsius, is the only Egypt ologist of modern times who has travelled through the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia. The University of Strasburg made him profe or-extraordinary of Egypt ology, and, by imperial order, he was appointed a profe or in the philosophical faculty of the same institution. He made a fifth visit to Egypt in August, 1875, returning in April, 1876. Since that time he has remained in Germany. Among his works are Ueber der Tempel und Grüber im Allen Ægypten ; Baugeschichte der Dendera tempels; Der Oasen des libyschen Wüste ; Der Felsentempel von Abu - Simbel , . Dun'can, SARA JEANNETTE, author; born in Brant ford, Ontario, in 1863. In 1890, she married Mr. Everard Cotes, of Calcutta, and has since made her residence in India. Previous to her marriage, she was a contributor to Toronto and Montreal newspapers and periodicals, and in this capacity made a tour of the world. She is the author of An American Girl in London; A Social Departure ; and The Simple Adventures of a Me in sahib. Duncker, MAXIMILIAN WOLFGANG, historian; born in Berlin, Germany, Oct. 5, 1811; became implicated in the Democratic movements in Bonn, was placed under arrest and sentenced to six years' imprisonment, but was very soon pardoned. Was made profe or of History at Halle (1842), a few years later a member of the German National A embly, and (1857) profe or at Tübingen. While keeper of the Pru ian Archives, an appointment which he received in 1861, he incorporated with them those of He e, Na au and Hanover. Among his works are a History of Antiquity ; Feudal ität und Aristokratie; Die Krisis der Reformation, . Died at Anspach, July 22, 1886. Dunel'len, in New Jersey , a post-borough of Middle sex co., on C. R. R. of N. J., 15 m. S.W. of Elizabeth. Pop . (1897) about 1,450. Du Pont', SAMUEL FRANCIS, a distinguished American naval officer, born in New Jersey, 1803. Entering the navy in his youth, he became commander in 1845, and in 1861 was given the charge of the Atlantic blockading squadron. In the same year he took the forts which commanded Port Royal harbor, S. C., and in 1862 became rear-admiral. In the year following, while in command of a fleet of monitors, he was repulsed by the garrison of Fort Sumter with the lo of one of his ve els. Died in 1865. Dupre ( du - prā ' ), JULES, landscape and marine painter; born at Nantes in 1812; entered his father's porcelain manufactory when a boy and studied designing. He began painting without instruction from a master, exhibiting five landscapes at the Salon of 1831. From the Salons of 1833 and 1849, and the Paris Exposition of 1867, he received second-cla medals. In 1889 the medal of honor was awarded him by the Paris Exposition. He had previously been made an officer of the Legion of Honor. His landscapes are counted among the best of the romantic school, especially noted for fine qualities of color and unity of effect. Two celebrated canvases, Morning , and Evening , are in the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris. Died in 1889. Dupre, JULIEN, landscape and figure painter, born in Paris, March 17, 1851; studied with Pils, Lehmann, and Langée. From the Salon of 1881, and the Paris Exposition of 1889, he received second-cla medals, and also was honored with a medal from the Centennial Expoвіtion of Philadelphia in 1876. His pictures represent peasant life, and show careful study of nature and drawing. The Pasture is in the Museum at St Louis, Mo.; Mowing Clover , and The Refractory Cow , are in the Luxembourg gallery, Paris. Duran', EMILE AUGUSTE CAROLUS, painter, born at Lille, France, July 4, 1837; studied in Paris and visited Rome in 1861, subsequently spending some time in Spain, where his style was very much influenced by the works of Velasquez. D. is best known by his portraits, which are noted for their coloring and truth to nature His design, Gloria Marise Medicis , for a ceiling in the Luxembourg, was exhibited in 1878, and for L'A a ine he was awarded his first medal. As a teacher he has been very succe ful. Durande-Claye, ALFRED AUGUSTINE, civil engineer, born in Paris, July 18, 1841; educated at St. Barbe and the Polytechnic School, graduating with the highest honors. Was appointed chief engineer of the Ponts et Chau ées (1868), and a igned, in the service of the city of Paris, the study of the questions of the stilization of sewage, and the purfication of the Seine. To this work he devoted his whole life, serving upon all | the important commi ions on public works. His principal writings were upon sewage disposal, sewage irrigation, . He was profe or at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and also taught in the Ecole des Ponts et Chau ées. Died April 28, 1888. Durant', in Mi i ippi , a post-town of Holmes co., 59 miles N.E. of Jackson. Pop . (1897) about 1,400. Dur'bin, JOHN PRICE, D.D., Methodist Episcopal preacher, born in Bourbon co., Ky., in 1800; studied at Miami University and Cincinnati College, entering the ministry in 1819. He traveled in Europe and the Levant; and for a number of years was president of Dick in son College ( q.r. ), also mi ionary secretary of the Methodist Episcopal church. As a speaker he was noted for his eloquence, and as secretary showed much executive ability. His contributions to periodicals were numerous, and he has published Observations in Europe, principally in France and Great Britain; Observations in Egypt, Palestine , . Died in New York city, Oct. 17, 1876. Durometer, n. [Lat, durus , hard, and suff. meter, measure.] ( Mech . ) A device for testing the hardne of substances, consisting of a drilling instrument furnished with an apparatus to gauge the amount of penetration resulting from a given number of rotations at a certain pre ure. Duruy (du-ri), VICTOR, historian and educator, born at Paris, Sept. 11, 1811; entered the College of St. Barbe (1823), taking a course of cla ical study; subsequently became instructor in history in the College of Henry IV. at Paris. In 1853 received the degree of doctor in letters. Later in his career became minister of public instruction, having in the interval held several important positions. He was removed from his position of minister in 1869 and appointed a senator. The Academy of Inscriptions made him a member, also the Academy of Sciences Moral and Political; and he was grand officer of the Legion of Honor. As an author his works chiefly consist of text-books on history and geography, and include: His to ire des Romains ; His to ire de la Grèce Ancienne , . This last named work was crowned by the Academy. Died Nov. 25, 1894. Dust-ball, n. ( Vet .) A disease of horses, due to a concretion of grain dust in the intestine, producing obstruction and resultant inflammation. The treatment is to remove the ball by means of an active purge. Dutch Gap, a canal or "cut-off," constructed upon the James river, below Richmond, Va., under the supervision of General Butler, during the Civil War. Dutch'man, n. A term colloquially used by mechanics to designate a patched job; as, a piece inserted in a piece of joinery to hide bad fitting. -A layer of suet fastened by means of skewers into a piece of lean meat. (Butcher's slang.) Dutton, CLARENCE EDWARD, soldier and geologist; born in Walling ford, Conn., May 15, 1841; graduated in arts at Yale College in 1860; entered the Civil War and became captain of the Twenty-first Connecticut volunteers. In 1863 he was made second lieutenant of ordnance in the U. S. Army; captain in 1873, major in 1890. As an ordnance officer he has written upon the subjects of gunnery, on the metallurgy of steel, and on economics, but has given special attention to the subject of geology. His works on this subject are: Geology of the High Plateaus of Utah; Tertiary History of the Grand Cañon District ; Hawaiian Volcanoes; Mount Taylor and the Zuñi Plateau, . He was detailed to a ist the U. S. survey of the Rocky Mountain region, and from 1880 to 1891 was a member of the U. S. Geological Survey; is also a member of the National Academy of Sciences. Duveyrier, HENRI, traveller, born in Paris, Feb. 28, 1840; after completing his studies, and having procured from England the nece ary support, he went on a tour of exploration through Africa, first visiting Algeria, making explorations in the northern parts of Sahara, and penetrating to the center of the Sudan. After his return he was made one of the perpetual secretaries of the Société de Géographie of Paris, and awarded its great gold medal. His works include Exploration du Sahara; La Tunisie; Les Touaregs du Nord , . Committed suicide near Sèvres, April 26, 1892. Duyck/inck, EVERT AUGUST US, editor and e ayist, born in New York, Nov. 23, 1816; was a graduate of Columbia College, and founder and editor of the Literary World. In collaboration with his brother, George L., D. published the Cyclopædia of American Literature (2 vols., 1856). He was also the author of History of the War for the Union , . Died in New York, Aug. 13, 1878. Duy'kerb ok, n . [Dutch, duiker , ducker, and bok , buck.] ( Zool .) A small antelope ( Cephalophus mergens) of central and southern Africa; so called from its habit of dodging swiftly through dense thickets. Dvorak, ANTONIN, musician, born Sept. 8, 1841, at Mülhausen, near Kralup, in Bohemia, the son of a butcher, and destined for the same trade. The first musical instruction he received was from the village schoolmaster who taught him to play the violin; subsequently he attended school at Zlonist, where he took le ons from the local organist. After spending some time at a school in Kamenitz, and while there learning the German language, he entered the organ school at Prague. His opera, The King and the Collier, was the first of his works to be placed on the stage. Other works are Stabat Mater ; The Spectre's Bride, . In September of 1892 he removed to New York, having accepted the position of musical director of the National Conservatory of Music, but a year later returned to Europe, where he has since remained. Dwarfed Trees, planted and growing in flower pots, are common ornaments of Japanese and Chinese houses and gardens. The art of dwarfing consists in the prevention of an abundant flow of sap, so that vegetation cannot proceed actively, though the tree is kept alive and healthy. The trees are planted in narrow and shallow pots, and care is taken that their roots cannot reach the ground beneath. Water is supplied sparingly, the leading shoots are pinched off, and the branches variously bent and twisted. These and similar proce es yield trees of a remarkably diminutive size, yet not unfrequently bearing an abundance of flowers and fruit. Dwight, THEODORE WILLIAM, LL.D., jurist, educator and editor; born at Cat skill, N. Y., July 18, 1822; studied at Hamilton College and Yale Law School; was profe or of law in Hamilton College and the founder of a law school there. He also organized the law school of Columbia College, New York, and was profe or of municipal law in that institution. From both Rutgers and Columbia Colleges he received the degree of doctor of laws, and was non-resident profe or of constitutional law in Cornell University. Besides his work as an educator, he was vice-president of the New York Board of State Commi ioners of Public Charities, president of the New York Prison A ociation, and a prominent member of the "Committee of Seventy" of the city of New York. In conjunction with Rev. E. C. Wines, D.D., he published Prisons and Reformatories in the United States ; was also a ociate editor of the American Law Register , and published an Argument in the Rose Will and Charity Cases, . Died in Clinton, N. Y., June 28, 1892. Dwight, WILLIAM BUCK, scientist, born in Constantinople, Turkey, May 22, 1823; went to the U. S. in 1849; studied at Yale College and the Union Theological Seminary, New York city. In 1859 he attended the scientific school at Yale and the same year became principal and proprietor of Englewood Female Institute, Englewood, N. J. He has also held the position of principal of the Officers' Family School at the U.S. Military Academy, West Point. In 1870-78 he was a ociate principal and instructor in natural sciences in the State Normal School at New Britain, Conn.; later was appointed profe or of zoology in the Martha's Vineyard Summer Institute, Ma achusetts, and subsequently became profe or of natural history and curator of the museum in Va ar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. The Wappinger valley limestones of Dutche county, N. Y., and the Taconic limestones of Canaan, N. Y., have been examined by D. and the results of his investigations published in scientific periodicals. Dwight, in Illinois , a town of Livings ton co., on the C. & A. R. R., 74 m. S.S.W. of Chicago. Has considerable local trade and some manufactures. Pop . (1897) about 1,500. Dy'ak, n. See DAYAK, in SECTION I. Dy'er, THOMAS HENRY, English historian; born in London, May 4, 1804. After the close of the commercial house in the West Indies, in which he had been a partner, he made a journey to Athens, Rome and Pompeii, and studied the ancient topography of those cities. He was the author of a Life of Calvin; History of Modern Europe; History of the City of Rome; Roma Regalis ; A Plea for Livy , . sumach, obtained from the leaves of Rhus cotinus. They yield a yellow containing much tannic acid, and are generally used as a mordant, or with iron salts to produce blacks, etc. Saffron , a beautiful yellow dye, is derived from the flowers of Crocus sativas. Fruits yield a cumber of dyes. Chrysorhamnine and zanthorhamnine , yellow dyes used in calico printing, ., are obtained from several species of Rhumnas ; and anna to or an not to from Biza orellana. This is employed for coloring butter and and cheese, and for yellow and orange dyes; or, mixed with red, for scarlet. Catechu , terra japonica , and gambir , come from the fruit, wood, and unripe pods of several plants of Hindu stan. They contain much tannic acid, and are used with iron salts as mordants in dyeing drab and black, also in tanning skins. Indigo is derived from the whole plant of several species of In dig of era, and woad from Is at is tinct or i a. These yield indigo blue, one of the most permanent of blue dyes.- Chemical colors. Various useful dyes are prepared by chemical combination, Pru ian blue being a ferrocyanide of iron; chrome yellow and orange , chromates of lead; Schweinfurt green, ace to-arsenite of copper; Guignet's green, hydrated oxide of chronium; and ultramarine a compound of alumina, silica, soda and sulphur. Of D. now in use, those derived from coal-tar have in considerable measure displaced those of organic origin. Of these there are four series. The aniline series includes the red rosaniline salts, with purple, violet and blue substitution products derived from them, and various other hues. The phenol series includes picric acid and other nitro-coloring substances. The azo series embraces chrysoidine, Bismarck brown, numerous wool scarlets, . The anthracene series is represented by artificial alizarin, anthrapurpurin, alizarin orange, anthracene blue, etc.- Dyeing . The application of dyes to fibers and fabrics is an important proce , needing careful preliminary preparation. The fibers must first be thoroughly cleansed of resinous and oily matter, so that the dye liquors may come into immediate contact with the fibers. This is done by proce es of boiling, treating with dilute acids or alkalies, washing etc. The method of applying the dye differs according to the nature of the fiber and the particular dye-stuff employed. Loose materials are dyed by immersion in the liquor in tubs or vats; yarn is hung over sticks and immersed in the dye, being turned from time to time; pieces of woven fabric aгe dyed in a continuous dyeing machine, divided into a series of compartments which contain the nece ary D. and mordants. Some colors, known technically as substantives, readily combine with the fibers, silk and wool taking up colors much more readily than cotton and linen. Many of the aniline colors are substantives, and the operation of dyeing with them is very simple, a mere immersion in the dye liquor being required. In some cases agents, known as a istants, are used to fix or set the color, or to give a more uniform tint. These embrace acids, alkalies, alum, . With adjective dyes, those which will not combine directly with the fibers, mordants must be used. These are substances having an affinity for the colors, and which can be fixed in an insoluble condition on or in the fibers. They include various metallic oxides or salts, tannic acid, . Mor dants often affect the natural tints of the dyes, thus rendering it po ible to obtain several shades with the one dye. In this oxide of iron is particularly effective, changing the red color of logwood, ., to various shades, merging into black if used in large proportion. Oxide of tin brightens the tints, while alumina fixes them in their natural shades. The acetates of alumina, iron and chromium are easily decomposed, a portion of the acetic acid being released and an insoluble basic acetate formed. When cotton is boiled in solutions of these substances, its fibers become thoroughly impregnated with the insoluble compound. When the yarn is now transferred to the dyeing vat the color unites with the mordant, forming insoluble colored substances, which are called lakes , in and on the fibers, which are in this way permanently dyed. Various other methods are employed, all leading to the same result. Thus fibers or fabrics may be dyed in the dyestuff alone, or with an a istant; in the dyestuff with a mordant added; immersed first in the mordant and afterward in the dyestuff; first in the dye and afterward in the mordant; succe ively in the mordant, the dye, and the mordant; or the color may be produced directly upon the fibers, as in the case of some azo-reds. Dykes, JOHN BACCHUS, musician and clergyman, born at Hull, Eng., March 10, 1823; graduated from Cambridge, was ordained (1847), and appointed precentor at Durham Cathedral (1849); received the degree of Mus. Doc. (1861) from the University of Durham, and the next year became vicar of St. Oswald's, in that city. His compositions for the services of the Anglican church are many and excellent. the mineral product of a species of algse whose stem consisted chiefly of silica, the shape of the stem being retained after the organic material had disappeared. Beds of it are found in many countries, underlying peat. This material is calcined in a kiln to remove water and organic matter, then ground and sifted. It then contains about 98 per cent, of pure silica. This substance was adopted as the basis of D. after experiments in mixing nitro-glycerine with many other materials, such as charcoal, sawdust, brick dust, rags, paper, ., none of which proved satisfactory. D. consists of 1 part of kieselguhr to 3 parts of nitroglycerine, and is of a reddish-brown color, its specific gravity varying from 1:59 to 1.65. It burns with a yellowish flame, and without danger if used in small quantities; but when fired with a detonating fuse explodes with extreme violence. The freezing point is about 40° F., and, like nitro-glycerine, it is more difficult to explode when frozen, though many serious accidehts have arisen from incautious thawing. The violent nature of its action is due to the rapidity with which the explosion takes place, which, in the case of a dynamite cartridge, is estimated to occupy only the 24,000th part of a second. D. is much employed in breaking up boulders and heavy metal castings, in removing the roots of trees, . It loses only 6 per cent. of its power under water, and is therefore much employed in sub-aqueous operations. Loose tamping, as with sand or water, is sufficient, and bore-holes are often quite dispensed with, the D. being laid on the surface of the substance and covered with sand or clay. D. is not very suitable for quarrying purposes, the rock being too greatly shattered; gunpowder, though requiring a larger quantity and more blowholes, is generally used instead. In D. manufacture the greatest care is nece ary, and with all care serious accidents sometimes occur. The various proce es are carried on in isolated buildings. Nitric and sulphuric acid having been mixed, the temperature being kept low by the use of cold water and compre ed air, the acids are run into a large leaden tank, where they are further cooled and glycerine injected by means of compre ed air. This is a dangerous proce and needs to be very carefully performed. The nitro-glycerine is next drawn off and washed in an alkaline solution to remove any exce acidity, and is then incorporated I with the kieselguhr in the proportions named. It is then made up into cartridges from 1 to 7 inch diameter and about 31⁄2 inches long, these being wrapped in vegetable parchment and packed in boxes covered with waterproof oil-paper. The legal regulations both as to the storage and transport of D. are very stringent. D. has unhappily proved available for purposes of destruction, and many instances of outrage in the blowing up of buildings, and the ma acre of political and other enemies by its use are on record. Irish malcontents and European anarchists have frequently used it for destructive purposes, and America has not escaped. The most notable instance was the a a ination of the Emperor of Ru ia by means of a dynamite bomb (1881). Dynamite Gun. (Ordnance.) Agun for throwing dynamite for explosion at a distance, pneumatic power being used for the purpose. Such a gun was patented by Mefford in 1883, and improved by Zalinski. An experimental gun was made in New York and tried at Fort Hamilton in April, 1884, the experiments being conducted by Col. John Hamilton and Lieut. E. L. Zalinski. The gun was a tube 40 feet long, with a bore 4 inches in diameter. A large steel cylinder filled with compre ed air formed the discharging apparatus. The experiment proved entirely succe ful. In 1887 such a gun, 8 inches in diameter, was fired at a ve el 2,000 yards off, which was struck and completely destroyed by a shell charged with 55 lbs. of dynamite. The barrel of the gun consists of 36-inch iron lined with a -inch bra tubing. The projectile was exploded by an electric fuse so adjusted as to act an instant before or after impact, this enabling it to produce the greatest effect. In consequence of this succe a cruiser, the Vesuvius , was built to carry three dynamite guns. In 1888 a U. S. naval lien tenant invented a dynamite shell capable of being fired with gunpowder from an ordinary breech loading gun. It is lined with asbestos cloth, and carries a number of pellets of dynamite, each wrapped in paraffined paper. A test of these dynamite guns was made on Dec. 9, 1895, at the mouth of San Francisco harbor, three 8-inch shells being thrown 1,500, 2,000, and 2,500 yards respectively, and one, carrying 150 lbs. of dynamite, being thrown two miles. Great accuracy was attained and the tests were in every way satisfactory. Dynamo. Same as DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. Dynamo-electric Machine'. To the dynamo all the recent great advances in electric engineering have been due; therefore, to it we owe the electric light, electric railway, and numerous other applications of electric power. Recent as has been its employment for these purposes, there is nothing recent in the knowledge of its principle. This was made by Faraday in 1831, when he discovered that when a conductor is moved acro the pole of a magnet an electric current is induced in it. Thus, if a coil of wire, whose ends are connected so as to form a closed circuit, be suddenly withdrawn from the pole of a magnet, a transient electric current appears in it. If it be returned, a current in the opposite direction appears. The discovery of this principle quickly gave rise to a number of what were called magneto-electric machines, in most of which a steel horseshoe magnet was made to rotate over a pair of coils wound on a fixed armature, or the armature made to rotate over a fixed magnet. These contained the whole principle of the dynamo, though much needed to be done in its practical development. It was soon perceived that electro-magnets might replace the permanent steel magnets; and in 1867 it was learned that these magnets might be excited by the current induced by themselves. Even when the cores of the electromagnet are of soft iron, enough residual magnetism continues in them to excite a feeble current in the revolving coil. If this current be sent through the coil of the magnet its power becomes strengthened and the induced current grows stronger, and in this way the magnetism is stage by stage increased until its maximum force is attained. The principle of self-excitation is now employed in all but the smallest machines. To it the name of dynamo-electric was applied, a term now given to all forms of these machines. The dynamo reached the first stage in its important commercial development in 1870, when Gramme invented a form of armature which gave a current continuous in direction and sensibly uniform in strength. This consisted of a ring-shaped iron core, revolving in the magnetic field, on which were wound a connected series of coils. In these coils, as the ring revolved, a rapidly succeeding series of currents in opposite directions were induced. These were made to move in the same direction by means of a device called the commutator, which revolved with the ring, and from which the current was taken by wire brushes in such a way that the direct and reversed currents were given the same direction in the receiving wire, and a continuous current of practically uniform strength was produced. One further device became nece ary. It would not do to have the core of the armature solid, since in that case currents would be induced in it which would weaken those in the coils. Hence the core was made up of many turns of soft iron wire, on which the coils of insulated copper were wound. Armature cores are now usually made of thin plates insulated from each other. The value of the iron core is in its influence in strengthening the magnetic field through its inductive energy. In 1856 Siemens produced an armature consisting of a coil of many turns