RUMANIA

kingdom, 8.E. Europe is bounded N. by Ukraine, E. by Black Sea, 8S. by Bulgaria, W. and Hungary; surface rises from Walla-~ chi an plain of Danube to Car path i an folds beyond which is plateau of Trann valley, highlands of Bukovina, Dobrudja and steppe, h and niester rivers, Drainage is to Danube, which forms 8. frontier from Bazias to near Turtukai; chief climate is extreme; at Bukharest the mean temp. is 73° F. in July, 25° F. in Jan.; mean ann. rainfall, 31 in. agriculture is very important. The soils of Wall a chia and Moldavia are among richest in Europe; chief cereals are corn, wheat, barley, oats, rye, and millet; other crops are sugar, tobacco, flax, hemp, fruit (including grapes). Pastoral occupations are also largely followed. Forests cover c. 13,000,000 ac.; resinous woods and beech predominate. Car path i ans and Transylvania are rich in minerals; petroleum, coal, fron, copper, gold, silver, and salt are worked at present, but mineral wealth is only partly developed. Immense damage was done to oilfields during the World War, but the output is now well over 1,000,000 metric tons annually; the former Hungarian salt deposits will yield 200,000 metric tons yearly; Transylvanian iron, 300,000 metric tons. Industries are developing slowly; flour milling, brewing, and distilling are the chief. The Rumanians are the descendants of the Roman colonists of Dacia and of Romanized Dacians. Malaria is prevalent in low-lying river valleys; pellagra, and epidemics of smallpox, cholera, and typhus, cause the country to have a very high rate of mortality. Old Rumania, devastated by the late war, will develop as machinery and rolling stock, agricultural implements, etc., can be imported; the future exportable surplus of Greater Rumania is estimated at 5,000,000 tons of cereals, 500,000 tons of timber, and 1,000,000 tons of petroleum products. Rumania was the only country of S.E. Europe in a thoroughly healthy financial position before the war, but enemy requisitions and destruction, coupled with the annexation by the Bolsheviks of the state treasury (deoe in Ru ia for greater safety), ave retarded her recovery, which the stability of her political institutions and her natural resources must ultimately ensure. In 1923 the railway mileage was,000. _Bukharest is the cap.; chief ports are Braila, Galatz, and Constantza. See Mar, New Covunrzrins or S.E. EUROPE. Government.—The government is a limited monarchy, constitution dating from 1866, and modified 1879 and 1884; executive is in hands of a cabinet, consisting of premier and seven ministers of state; legislative power is vested in a Senate of 170 members elected for eight years, and a Chamber of Deputies of 347 members elected for four years. The different constitutions of Old Rumania and the new Transylvania, Bukovina, and Be arabia are to be unified, 1920. The country is divided for local administrative purposes into 77 districts (13 in Moldavia, 17 in Wall a chia, 4 in Dobrudja, 8 in Be arabia, 11 in Bukovina, 24 in Transylvania). The administration of justice is carried out by 281 justices, 34 tribunals, 5 appeal courts, and 1 court of ca ation. The field army has, 1920, a total strength of c. 250,000 men, and military service is compulsory between ages of twenty-one and forty-six. The navy consists of 1 protected cruiser, 7 gunboats, 6 coastguard ve els; 6 first-cla and 2 second cla torpedo boats; a training-ship and a dispatch ve el; and there are 12 police boats. -There is a marine arsenal at Galatz. Education is free and obligatory, but the number of schools is below requirements; illiteracy is common. Bukharest and Ja y are univ. towns. ‘The state religion is Gr. Orthodox, and the National Church is reco: ed as an independent institution; there are four archbishops and ten bishops. There is complete religious toleration, and the inhabitants include many Roman Cathopop. 17,393,000. History — Rumania was inhabited in early times by the Getz, and later by the Dacians, who were subdued by Rome in A.D. 101-6, when the country became the Roman prov. of Dacia. It was abandoned by Aurelian in A.D. 274, and henceforth was for many centuries overrun by succe ive hordes of bar The independent principalities of Moldavia and Wall a chia were established in the 14th cent. Among the most notable rulers or voivodes of Moldavia were Alexander I., who reigned in the.early part of the 14th cent., and acknowledged Polish overlordship; Stephen the Great, who between 1460 and 1475 inflicted defeat on Poles, Hungarians, and Turks in turn, and subsequently captured Pokutia from the Poles; and Bogdan III., who in 1513 acknowledged the sovereignty of Turkey, agreeing to make a yearly payment to the Sultan in return for protection. Moldavia was temporarily united with Wall a chia under Michael the Brave, 1593-1601, but it soon afterwards again came under Turk. control. Under Basil Lupul, voivode in 1634-54, a number of legislative reforms were carried out. The last remains of even a nominal independence disappeared in 1711, when the voivode Demetrius Cantemir was compelled to fly to Ru ia by an invading Turk. army; and henceforth the office of ruler was sold by the Turk. Government to the highest bidder, generally a nn Greek from the Phanar dist. of Constantinople, whence the name Phanartote, applied to the period between 1714 and 1822 Meantime in Wall a chia, which had been originally a dependency of Hungary. history had followed a course resembling at many points that of the northern principality. The most important voivodes were Mircea I., who was defeated by the Turks in 1396 and was subsequently compelled to acknowledge the overlordship of the Porte, 1411, and Michael the Brave, who com sylvan i a under his sway. The _ last elected voivode was Const an tine Brancovan, 1688-1714, whose wealth and pepepertty, roused the jealousy of his deposed and executed. Thenceforth, here as in Moldavia, voivodes were nominated by the Turk. Government. The Phanariote Period in both states was marked by oppre ion of the native population, and by extortionate taxation, the Gr. voivodes naturally aiming at reimbursing themselves for the sums with which they had bought their position. During this epoch also both Austria and Ru ia made encroachments upon Rumanian terr.; thus Bukovina was transferred to Austria in 1775, and in 1812 a large part of Be arabia was annexed by Ru ia. In 1821 the proyinces took part in the Gr. rising, and were accordingly harshly handled by the Turks; in 1829 they were placed under Ru ian protection by the Treaty of Adrianople. The influence of Ru ia was for some time of great importance; in 1848 she aided Turkey in suppre ing an insurrection, and her troops occupied the.country in 1853; but after the Crime an War she had to restore Be arabia to the principalities, which were declared neutral territories by the Congre of Paris in 1856. Three years later the election of Alexander Cuza to the thrones of both Moldavia and Wall a chia united the whole of Rumania under one ruler; the union was publicly proclaimed and the present name adopted in 1861. Alexan-| der carried out a great number of legislative reforms, but he was not popular in the country and was eventually deposed in 1866, when Prince Carol of Hohenzollern-Sig mar in gen was chosen to succeed him. Carol married Elizabeth of Neuwied (‘Carmen Sylva’), whose influence on Rumanian art and letters deserves mention. When war broke out in 1877 between Ru ia and Turkey, Rumania supported the former; and by Treaty of Berlin in 1878 it was recognized as an independent state, but had to cede to Ru ia, receiving the Dobrudja in exchange. It was declared a hereditary kingdom in 1881, when Carol was crowned as the first king. Various modifications were made in the constitution in 1884. In 1905, 1906, and 1910 Rumania broke off relations with Greece; she took, however, no part in the war of 1912 between Turkey and the other Balkan states. In the second war she allied herself with Serbia and Greece, Overran part of Bulgaria, and secured c, 2,000 sq. m. in the N.E. of that country (see BALKAN Wars). Carol died on Oct. 10, 1914, and was succeeded by his nephew Ferdinand. During the World War Rumania adhered to a policy of watchful neutrality, until Aug. 27, 1916, when, despite the king’s production of a secret treaty with the Triple Alliance made in 1883, she joined the Allies. (For hostilities, see below.) Compelled to sign an armistice on Dec. 10, 1917, by the Peace of Bukharest, May 1918, Rumania gave back to Bulgaria that part of the Dobrudja gained in 1913, and lost territory to Germany and Austria-Hungary. That treaty was nullified by tie Armistice of Nov. 1918, and Rumania has received Transylvania, Bukovina, and Be arabia. In 1919, in order to arrest the progre of Bolshevism,in Transylvania, she invaded Hungary and occupied Budapest, but, following the Treaty of St. Germain, Dec. 9, 1919, withdrew her forces, Language and Literature—The language is one of the Romance group, but has a large proportion of Slavonic words. Early forms of literature were religious writings and translations from the Bible, the first of which were produced in the 16th cent.; and a number of historical chronicles appeared in the 17th cent. This early period was marked by Slavonic influence, During the Phanariote epoch Gr. influence was all-important; to this time belong the poets Aaron an Vacarescu and the historians Klain and Neculcea. A great revival of national feeling occurred in first half of 19th cent., the greatest names of this renai ance period being George Asaki and Heliade Radulescu. Rad Poets of the 19th cent. include Bolintineanu and Alexandri; the greatest dramatist is Caragiale; and among historians are Hasdeu and Xenopol. There are some fine collections of folk-songs and legends. Rumania in the World 27, 1916, R Austria-Hung; the advance of the British and French on the Western front. But Rumania adopted a short-sighted military policy. Transylvania was part of her ‘unredeemed’ territory, and she could not resist the temptation to seize it at once without regard to wider problems. Her frontier was the longest of all the belligerents in proportion to her size and population. On the N. the Bukovina was held by the Ru ians, and in linking up with their advance she exposed herself to the risk of attack in the S. from Bulgaria. The Ru ians promised to send a small force to hold the Dobrudja line, but the vulnerable line of the Danube was left almost unguarded. The ies at Salonica were too far away and in too difficult circumstances to prevent a hostile concentration against Rumania. If she had adopted the alternative plan of striking through Bulgaria, she might have taken Sofia and cut the railway which bound Bulgaria to the Central Powers. The Rumanian army in the field numbered about 400,000, and there was an equal number in reserve. Its equipment was fairly adequate, but leadership left a good deal to be desired. In the first week of the war all the mountain pa es from the Bukovina to the Danube were seized, Sept. 2, and the weak Austro-Hungarian divisions everywhere gave way. Kronstadt (or Bra o), Petroseny, and Hermannstadt were rapidly occupied, and the enemy continuing to retreat, the Rumanians rashly followed. The enemy was withdrawing to a shorter and safer line. A deadly counterstroke was being prepared. Von Falkenhayn, who had ceased to be chief of the Ger. General Staff, was appointed to command the new 9th Austrian y which was secretly a embling in the Lower Maros valley. Meantime another army under von Mackensen was being a embled S. of the Danube to clear the Dobrudja and to be ready, when von Falkenhayn had recovered the Car path i an pa es, to cro the river and join hands with him in an enveloping movement upon Bukharest. On Sept. 1 Mackensen moved his right wing acro the Dobrudja frontier, and then wheeled his left against Turtukai and Silistria on the Danube. The weak Rumanian garrison at Turtukai was surrounded, Sept. 5, and that at Silistria escaped in the nick of time, Sept. 9. Suddenly faced with disaster, Rumania hurried three divisions from Transylvania, and recalled General Averescu from that region to take charge of the Danube front and to co-operate with the Ru ian-Serbian corps and the Ru ian cavalry division. By a vigorous counter-attack Mackensen was forced back 10 m. Sept. 23, but reserves were lacking to turn the retreat into a rout. The Transylvanian front was now beginning to feel the first effects of von Falkenhayn’s concentration. The pre ure came first in the region of the Vulkan Pa , where Petroseny was evacuated, Sept. 20. Disastrous events farther E. soon forced a retirement into Wall a chia. Von Falkenhayn’s main thrust was delivered against the right of the Rumanian ist Army beyond Hermannstadt, which was separated by a space of some 15 m., from the left of the 2nd Army near Fogaras. Disposing his forces in three columns, he sought to separate and outflank the two armies. The western column cro ing the intervening hills, cut the line of retreat through the Roter Turm Pa , Sept. 26, but the Rumanians, now attacked in front at Hermannstadt, managed by desperate rearguard actions to effect an escape by goat paths acro the mountains, leaving much booty behind. The second Ger. column intervened between the Rumanian armies, but the third did not succeed in executing a flanking movement against the 2nd Army. It evacuated Fogaras, Oct. 4, and retired towards the Torzburg and Buzeu Pa es, while the 4th Army on its right also fell back towards the Gyimes and the Oitoz. By the middle of the month the Rumanians had been forced back through most of the pa es. The first blow was delivered at the Torzburg, and the frontal attack failed, the defenders standing firm in front of Kampolung. After much bitter fighting the Germans pierced the Predeal, and the Rumanians fell back to the summer resort of Sinaia, Oct. 25. In the Mold avian pa es the resistance was equally determined, and the enemy made little headway except in the Gyimes region, where he penetrated about 7 m. inside the frontier down the Trotus valley, eet: but early in Nov. he was driven ack, Meantime Mackensen had received large reinforcements of guns and munitions, and had got two new divisions from Turkey and one from Pomerania. He was not ready to move till Oct. 20, and in the interval a raid was attempted acro the Danube at Corabia, near the mouth of the Aluta, Sept. 30, the Rumanians replying with a more ambitious effort at Rjahovo, E. of Rustchuk, but the ground gained could not be held, Oct: 2. In the Dobrudja Mackensen occupied Tuzla, Oct. 20, and pushing forward his center from Copadinu cut the Constantza-Cernavoda ry. near Medjidieh, Oct. 21. The following day the Rumanians began to evacuate Constantza, setting fire to its stores of oil and wheat. The port was quickly occupied by the enemy, Oct. 24. On the 25th the small Rumanian force holding the famous Cernavoda bridge retired acro it, blowing up one of the ars. The town was occupied by the Buleart, the Rumanians and Ru ians were pre ed back into the marshy region of the Danube delta, where General Sakharov arrived to take command, bringing with him several Ru ian divisions. Snow had begun to fall in the Car path i ans, and Falkenhayn had still to debouch from the pa es. The defense, gallantly maintained, finally broke in the region of the Vulkan Pa , where a road runs down the Jiu valley to the railhead at Targul Jiu. Though considerably outnumbered, the Rumanian ist Army, under General Dragalina, who fell in the battle, succeeded in repulsing the Germans, Nov. 1; but a new a ault, combined with attacks in the Aluta valley and the Torzburg and Predeal section, finally overcame the Rumanian resistance. ‘'T'argul Jiu fell on Nov. 13. Reinforcements were sent from the Aluta, but arrived too late to prevent a crushing defeat on the Jiu, Nov. 17, after which the whole defense crumbled. By Nov. 21 the Germans were in Craiova, and turning eastwards reached the Aluta at Slatina, Nov. 27. At the same time the army group of General Krafft von Del mens in gen was pushing 8S. from the Roter Turim, and von Mackensen had begun to cro the Danube, Nov. 23. In the Dobrudja a Ru o-Rumanian attack recovered some ground, but was securely held N. of the railway line, Nov. 9. The Rumanian division at Orsova (or Hirsova), in imminent danger of being cut off, had begun to retire, thus opening the ‘Iron Gate’ to the enemy. Barges came down the stream, and Mackensen prepared to effect a cro ing at Sistova, E. of the Aluta. Within a week, Nov. 22-26, an army group under General von Kosch was on the N. bank and had cleared the country for 20 m. inland. Cro ings were made at several other points, and the Rumanian left flank was effectively turned. Events now moved rapidly. Curtea de Arges fell on the 27th, Piteshti on the 29th, and the invaders’ line ran by way of Drag an est i and Giurgevo—within 30 m. of Bukharest. The Orsova division, cut off from the main armies, fought its way sou the as i ward to Caracalu, where the remnant of 7,000 surrendered, Dec. 7. The Kampolung group eventually rejoined the main forces near Targovishta. General Averescu, now in supreme command, attempted a last stand before Bukharest on the Arges, But after a momentary succe the lower river near its junction with the Nealovu was lost; 120,000 men wers needed for the defense of the capital, and even if they could have beat found it would have been a hopele task; on Dec. 5, von Mackensen entered Bukharest unopposed. Falkenhayn cro ed the Buzeu on @ wide front, Dec. 17; von Kosch was nearing Filipeshti; and the Allied forces in the Dobrudja fell back in the Danube delta. The immediate enemy objectives were Rimnic Sarat and Braila. The former was taken after a four days’ battle, Dec. 24-27; Braila fell as the result of a turning movement on the Dobrudja, Jan. 4, 1917. Farther north, Falkenhayn swung northeastwards towards Focsani, while Krafft von Del mens in gen was attempting to penetrate the Trotus valley from the Mold avian foot- | hills ills. It was now vital to the defense to hold firm in this region; for the first fortnight of 1917 the fortunes of the battle swayed. Focsani was en, Jan. 8, and for 30 m. northwards the Germans were on the Sereth; but the limit had been reached, and the advance was stayed, Jan. 15. After a heavy failure to penetrate the center opposite Fundeni, Jan. 19, and a trous attempt to push through the frozen Danube delta N. of Tulcea, the enemy offensive died out. The invader wreaked his vengeance entirely at the mercy of the Germans. With the victory of the Allies, Nov. 1918, this iniquitous document was cancelled, and as the result of the peace settlement Transylvania, Bukovina, and Be arabia were included within the rightful bound at as foe name for that part of Thrace and Macedonia. eae