JOULE, JAMES PRE SCOTT

(1818the 89), Eng. physicist; b. Salford; pupil of Dalton; formulated law of production of cent.), heat by pa age of electric current in 2 of conductor. By a long series of laborious Emexperiments, determined mechanic a equivalent of heat, ¢ e. the number 0: Judah work units required for a given rise © reform a JOUR DAN, JEAN BAPTIST, COUN) (1762-1833), Fr. soldier; defeated Aus (1796trians at Wattignies, 1793; at Fleurus romances, 1794; commanded in Rhine campaign 1795; defeated at Amberg and Wurzberg ik Stockach, 1799; marshal of France (61° district, Norse JOURNALISM, busine or profe iot of gathering news and presenting it it CATHreadable form and with appropriate com most ment in public periodicals, especiall newspapers. It is a comparativel army modern vocation, and has grown rapidk com with the spread of popular education an at the multiplying of mechanical appli ances. The newspapers of a century ag were limited in scope, embarra ed fo in lack of capital, deficient in per sonne author and the news, brought by stage coach o lit., sailing ve el, was weeks or months ol before it was printed. Today the tel graph has brought the ends of the eart (1834together, and an event happening in an continent can be fully and accuratel Ingogo, described in the next day’s newspapel South The evolution of journalism in Americ SIMON has been gradual and has developed wit a istant the growth of the country. In the earl days of the republic, great caution had t to be exercised in dealing with public event became or criticising Government officials. Oe prof. at tain restrictions were placed upon tt emphasised newspapers under the administration « psyPresident John Adams; but there wé ideas such an overwhelming sontimen throughout the country in favor of tk affreedom of the pre that these restri tions were soon abolished. Since th: time the American newspaper has be« untrammeled in its statements at used in Criticisms, subject only to the lay done against libel and those governing publ flowing decency. __ The middle and the latter part of the XIV century was the epoch of ‘‘personal’’ journalism, so-called, in which the opin- ‘jon of certain brilliant editors were more important to the readers of the paper than the news which it contained. Men like Horace Greeley, Henry J. Raymond, Thurlow Weed and Henry Watter son exerted an influence far greater than any editor of the present day. Later the * personal element was absorbed and lost ‘in the general contents and policy of the paper, and today it would puzzle many an intelligent man to name offhand the editor of his favorite paper. Coincident with this eclipse of the personal element thas been a le ening of political bitterne and a greater breadth of tolerance and opinion in newspaper policy. The ‘great papers are no longer the organs of of a special party which they support through thick and thin, but hold themselves quite free to criticise the policy ‘or personalities of their own party as - vigorously as those of the opposition. The great modern newspaper is a vast organization usually with a large capital, ‘an army of reporters, editors, special writers and correspondents. Its mechanical plant 4s equipped with enormous pre es capable of turning out hundreds of you sands of copies an hour. Many have elaborate pictorial supplements. The substitution of mechanical for hand typesetting and the use of wood pulp for paper have cheapened the cost of publication and correspondingly increased the circulation. With the growth dn circulation has come an immense volume of advertising, upon which the paper depends as its main source of revenue. Consideration for the interests of advertisers and the desire to extend the circulation in competition with other papers has nece arily, human nature being as it is, had its influence on the ethics of the profe ion. There is a temptation to exploit spicy bits of scandal and this has given rise to so-called “‘yellow”’ journalism. In the main however, the ‘ethical standard is fairly high. Confidences given by public men are seldom betrayed, and many instances exist of a refusal to suppre news at the insistence of important advertisers. The leading papers try to maintain a strict line of demarcation between the busine and editorial departments of the organization. It is safe to say that journalism has never been on a higher plane than it is today. _ Journalism, though the newspaper is its special province, is not confined wholly to t field. There are vast numbers of agricultural, cla , trade and Feligious publications which are natura aliy modified in character and limited in scope because of the special audien | that they addre . a emperor, succeeding Julian, 362; reversed pagan policy of Julian. (1483-1552), Ital. historian; b. Como: studied med. at Padua and Pavia, but renounced the profe ion in favor of lit.; Leo X. advanced him, and he became attached to the family of the Medici; great work was a history of his own times. Anglican scholar and divine; ed. Balliol Coll., Oxford; became tutor of his coll.; prof. of Greek, 1855; Master of Balliol, 1870; suspected for his liberal views in theology; had enormous influence in Oxford; best known as a scholar for his translations of Plato, Aristotle, and Thucydides.