Chemistry (formerly Chymistry)

[Fr. chimie; Sp. chimia; It. chinica; supposed to be derived from the Arabic word chem a, to hide; hence, the occult or hidden science, the black art.) The science which relates to the peculiar properties of matter; the properties of elementary substances, the proportions in which they unite, the means of their separation, and the laws which gov ern and effect these agencies. (Hist.) There is perhaps no science the gradual progre of which is so easily traced from one step to another as the science of chemistry. The empirical mixing of two substances, po e ing different properties, to form a third, differing from either, must have begun with the first peopling of the earth. The fact was transmitted to others who improved on it, and experimented on other similar bodies; and thus a ma of practical information was obtained, which gradually developed into chemical manufactures. The origin of C. may be traced to Tubal Cain, the father of workers of metal, between whom and Hermes Trismegistus lies a period of obscurity of which we know nothing. Hermes, who was the Egyptian god of arts and sciences, is said to have been the inventor of Alchemy. Egypt, which is said to have been colonized by his son Mizraim, was the foremost chemical nation of the East; their gla , pottery, colors. and methods of embalming the dead, bear strong testimony to the fact of their being acquainted with chemical proce es brought to a great state of perfection. The practical part of the science existed previous to the theoretical; but by degrees, as men began to think, they began also to observe and theorize. Thinking men saw that a gro earthy matter, such as iron ere, became changed by fire into a harai metallic substance like iron. What more rational than for them to suppose that gold could be formed in a similar way? The change of earth into metal was to them le wonderful in theory than the change of lead into gold. Thus alchemy was developed, but its origin is lost in obscurity. Philology points out that common chemical words such as alcohol, alkali, alembic, and others, have an Arabian origin, which indicates that the Arabians were among its earliest followers. As the principles and practice of pharmacy became more general, the fact that certain salts and liquors of a metallic nature a uaged pain and restored drooping vitality became known. It was but a step further to discover a compound that would prolong life indefinitely. Accompanying this was the search for the universal solvent, or alkahest. The first followers of alchemy were, no doubt, honest, serious men; but as time wore on, impostors arose who found ready dupes in avaricious people, who were ever ready to buy the secret of unbounded riches. In this way there was formed a ma of almost unintelligible knowledge, carefully concealed from the vulgar by secret symbols, and curious nomenclature. Through this accumulation there ran some golden veins; and it must not be forgotten that, while alchemy had its philosopher's stone and universal solvent, it also gave us a hundred salts and preparations daily used in our own laboratories. Toward the end of the 17th century alchemy fell into disfavor and philosophers and scientists turned their attention to the discovery of the principles that governed the formation and composition of bodies already in their hands, rather than to the pursuit of chemical chimeras. Para cels us, though imbued with the fanciful doctrines of astrology and demonology, must always be regarded with reverence. He and his followers constitute a connecting link between the alchemists and chemists. He was the first to offer a true chemical explanation of the action of mercury, iron, and lead in the human system. He distinguished alum from copperas, showing that the former contained an earth, the latter a metal. He admitted the existence of other elastic fluids besides air. He was aware that animals could not live, and inflammable matters could not burn, without air. To him succeeded Van Helmont, who was the first to distinguish between aërial fluids, or gases, as he called them. After Van Helmont came Boyle, one of the most acute investigators that ever lived. His numerous experiments are marvels of accuracy, bearing even the test of our present knowledge. He and his contemporary, Hooke, made great improvements in the air-pump, the invention of Otto Guericke, and paved the way to further discoveries. At the beginning of the 18th century come the names and discovories of Becher and Stahl, the founders of the phlogistic theory. They found that by heating charcoal with metallic oxides or calces, they were reduced to a metallic state. They further noticed, that when charcoal was burnt it was entirely di ipated. Upon these facts they founded the theory that a principle called phlogiston, united with the calx to form the metal. This theory appeared to be further sustained by the fact that metals, when heated, are converted into calces; the explanation of which was, that the phlogiston was consumed by the heat. This theory, which was the first general principle applied to the whole range of chemical phenomena, maintained its ground for some time, until the discoveries of Priest ley tended to overthrow it, by proving that the calx, or oxide, as mercury oxide, instead of gaining something by being heated, lost something, and that that something was oxygen. About this time Cavendish discovered hydrogen, and Rutherford nitrogen, experiment being heaped on experiment, and discovery on discovery, until the phlogistic theory of Stahl gave way. It was succeeded by that of Lavoisier, the father of modern chemical science, who cla ified and arranged the known chemical facts into a system unparalleled for its precision, extent of view, and logical accuracy. His discoveries were few, but he reasoned on the discoveries of others with wonderful astutene . From this moment C. marched on ward with giant strides. It would be impo ible to enumerate the many discoveries that have taken place since the beginning of the present century; a few will suffice to show how wonderfully science has progre ed even in our own time. The application of the voltaic current to the decomposition of the alkalies, by Davy, resulted in the discovery of pota ium, sodium and other new metals. The atomic theory of Dalton threw great light upon the composition of salts and acids. The invention of the present symbolic notation by Berzelius, and the determination of the elementary equivalents, followed. In 1811 Davy overthrew the theory of Lavoisier, that acids could not exist without oxygen, by proving that hydrochloric acid consisted only of chlorine and hydrogen. In 1812 Cour to is discovered iodine; Balard followed some time after with bromine. Element succeeded element until they reached in 1897, the number of seventy. All this time organic C. was making great progre . The vegetable alkaloids began to attract great attention; their analyses were made, and new theories founded on them. The early laborers, Woehler, Leibig and Berzelius, threw great light on this branch of the science, which is still very attractive to many famous chemists. The development of the theory of organic radicles has gone on increasing, fostered by the labors of Faraday, Laurent, Gerhardt, Hofmann, and others, until it has a umed a mathematical precision unknown to any other branch of physical science. The researches of Graham upon the diffusion of salts in solution and in dialysis, or the separation of crystallizable and non-crystallizable substances in solution by means of an intervening diaphragm, are among the most brilliant discoveries of the age. The researches of Schönbein, Schætter, Brodie, and others, on the allotropic states of bodies, seem to indicate the compound character of certain of the present elementary bodies. A most important discovery was spectrum analysis, which has resulted in the addition of many new elements. In 1868 the periodic law of Mendeleeff was announced and the dependence of the properties of the elements upon their atomic weights is now an accepted fact. The gaps in his series have resulted in the discovery of several mi ing elements. The application of electricity to chemistry has resulted in the separation of elements by this method in electro-chemical analysis and in a larger way in electro-metallurgy. (See also CHEMICAL FOR MULE.)-Theoretical C. Modern science regards matter as divisible into ma es, molecules, and atoms. A ma of matter is any portion recognizable by the senses. A molecule is the smallest quantity of any substance which can exist by itself, and which can enter into or leave a chemical change. An atom is the smallest particle of matter which can exist in combination. A molecule is made up of atoms, a ma is made up of molecules. These divisions of matter are held together by attractions called ma , molecular and atomic attraction. Ma attraction is called gravitation; molecular attraction, cohesion; and atomic attraction is called chemism. C. is then the science of atoms; it takes cognizance only of those facts which depend upon differences of atomic constitution. Literature. The literature of C. is so extensive that our space will not permit even the mention of the more important works. Moreover, the science is advancing so rapidly that nothing short of constant perusal of the leading technical journals will suffice to keep one fully informed as to the important discoveries that now occur almost daily. Chem'nitz, a manufacturing town of Saxony, on the Chemnitz, 37 m. W.S.W. of Dresden. Manuf . Cottons, cotton hosiery, mitts, . Pop . (1895) abt. 90,000. Chemosh', the national god of the Moabites and of the Ammonites, worshipped also in the reign of Solomon at Jerusalem. Chemung', in Illinois , a p.-v. and twp. of McHenry co., 70 m. W.N.W. of Chicago. Chemung', in New York , a S.W. county, bordering on Pennsylvania. Area , abt. 513 sq. m. It is traversed by the Chemung river, and drained by Cayuta, Catharine's, and Wynkoop's creek. Surface . Very irregular. Soil. Generally fertile. Cap . Elmira. Pop . (1897) abt. 54,000. -A post-village and township of Chemung co., 270 m. from New York city. Chemung' Centre, in New York, a post-office of Chemung co. Chemung' River, in New York , is formed by the junction of Tioga and Conhocton rivers, in Steuben co., takes an E.S.E. course through Chemung co., and empties into the Susquehanna. Chenan'go, in New York, a S. E. central county, partly bounded on the E. by Unadilla River, and watered by the Chenango and the E. branch of the Susquehanna. Surface. Diversified. Soil . Generally fertile. The Chenango Canal, connecting Utica and Bing hampton, pa er through the co. Cap . Norwich. Pop . (1897) abt. 42,000. -A township of Broome county. Chenango, in Pennsylvania , a village of Beaver co. -A post-office of Lawrence county. Chenango Forks, in New York , a post-village of Broome co., on the Chenango River and Canal, 11 m. N. E. of Bing hampton. Chenango River, in New York , rising in Oneida co., flows S. S. W., through Madison and Chenango counties, and empties into the Susquehanna. Length abt. 90 m. Chenaub', CHENAB, OF CHINAUB, & river of the Punjab, estimated at 760 m. long. It is increased in its course by several tributaries, and finally joins the Ghara in Lat. 29° 21' N., Lon. 71° 4' Ε. Chene ( sha in ), in Louisiana , a bayou in the N. W. part of Terre Bonne Parish, connected with bayous Shaver and Black. It is navigable throughout. Chengwata'na, in Minnesota , the former capital of Pine county, on Snake River, about 70 miles N. of St. Paul.