ĂRĀTRUM

( ἄροτρον ), a plough. Among the Greeks and Romans the three most e ential parts of the plough were,—the plough-tail ( γύης , bur is , bura ), the share-beam ( ἔλυμα , dens , dentale ), that is, the piece of wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole ( ῥυμός ], ἱστοβοεύς , temo ). In the time and country of Virgil it was the custom to force a tree into the crooked form of the bur is , or plough-tail. The upper end of the bur is being held by the ploughman, the lower part, below its junction with the pole, was used to hold the dentale or share-beam, which was either sheathed with metal, or driven bare into the ground, according to circumstances. The term vomer was sometimes applied to the end of the dentale . To these three parts, the two following are added in the description of the plough by Virgil:—1. The earth-boards , or mould-boards ( aures ), rising on each side, bending outwardly in such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the share-beam ( dentale ), which was made double for the purpose of receiving them. 2. The handle ( stiva ). Virgil describes this part as used to turn the plough at the end of the furrow; and it is defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil as the “handle by which the plough is directed.” It is probable that as the dentalia , the two share-beams, were in the form of the Greek letter Λ, which Virgil describes by duplici dor so , the bur is was fastened to the left share-beam and the stiva to the right, so that the plough of Virgil was more like the modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly held behind with both hands. Sometimes, however, the stiva was used alone and instead of the bur is or tail. In place of stiva the term capul us is sometimes employed. The only other part of the plough requiring notice is the coulter ( culter ), which was used by the Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to depend vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which came in its way, and thus preparing for the more complete overturning of the soil by the share. Two small wheels were also added to some ploughs. The plough, as described by Virgil, corresponds in all e ential particulars with the plough now used about Mantua and Venice. The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three times for each crop. The first ploughing was called proscindere , or novare ( νεοῦσθαι, νεάζεσθαι ); the second off ring ere , or iterare ; and the third, lirare , or tertiare . The field which underwent the “ prosci io ” was called vervactum or novale ( νεός ), and in this proce the coulter was employed, because the fresh surface was entangled with numberle roots which required to be divided before the soil could be turned up by the share. The term “ off ring ere ” from ob and frangere , was applied to the second ploughing; because the long parallel clods already turned up were broken and cut acro , by drawing the plough through them at right angles to its former direction. The field which underwent this proce was called ager iteratus . After the second ploughing the sower cast his seed. Also the clods were often, though not always, broken still further by a wooden mallet, or by harrowing ( occatio ). The Roman ploughman then, for the first time, attached the earth-boards to his share. The effect of this adjustment was to divide the level surface of the “ ager iteratus ” into ridges. These were called porcae , and also lirae , whence came the verb lirare , to make ridges, and also delirare , to decline from the straight line. The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to each side in the manner already explained, both covered the newly-scattered seed, and formed between the ridges furrows ( αὔλακες , sulci ) for carrying off the water. In this state the field was called seges and τρίπολος . When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was done in the spring, summer, and autumn of the same year. But in order to obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans ploughed four times, the prosci io being performed in the latter part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two whole years intervened. IMG:6459379820872971714_ill032.jpg: Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua). 1. Buris. 2. Temo.  3. Dentale. 4. Culter. 5. Vomer. 6 6. Aures.