Greek

A native or inhabitant of Greece; a Gre cian; a Hellene. -The language of Greece. Greek Architecture. The early architecture of Greece is exemplified in the ma ive remains of walls at Mycenæ, Argos, and others of the old Grecian cities, which are composed of huge, irregular, undre ed blocks of stone roughly piled together. (See CYCLOPEAN ARCHITECTURE.) It is utterly devoid of ornament, but in one or two instances examples remain of attempts to adorn the stones forming the piers and lintel of a gateway with rude representations of animals, as in the principal entrance to the Acropolis of Mycenæ mentioned above. Grecian architecture, properly so called, was the production of a far later age, and may be traced to that of Egypt and Western Asia, combining, as it does, the strength and solidity of the former with the more elegant features and decorative principles of the latter. The Doric, the first of the three Greek orders, a imilates more closely to the architecture of Egypt than either of the others, in its substantial and ma ive proportions: it is simple in character, but always conveys to the mind of the spectator a striking impre ion of its dignity and IMG:content-0440.jpg:[graphic] IMG:content-0441.jpg:[graphic] Fig . 1197. - THE PAR THE NON, (as it is.) beauty. The Ionic order, and its ornamentation, is de rived from the architecture of Western Asia, and is characterized by a greater degree of lightne in its proportions than the Doric order po e es, and the introduction of decorations in minor details. The Corinthian, the last, and by far the most elegant of the Greek orders, surpa es the Doric and Ionic orders in its elaborate adornment and symmetry of proportion; but, even in this, a similarity to the architecture of Egypt can be traced in the bell-shaped capitals of its columns, and the clusters of leaves that curl outward from its surface. But, although each order exhibits a decided step in advance of that which precedes it, as far as elegance and ornament are concerned, the three orders were uniformly characterized by beauty and harmony of proportion; and it may be said that the buildings of ancient Greece, especially the temples, were superior to those of any climate and any age as regards simplicity of form, the purposes for which they were intended, and the habits and requirements of the people for whose use they were erected. The chief characteristics and the scale of proportions preserved in the three Grecian orders, will be found elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE); and the principal parts that compose what is termed an order in cla ic architecture have been treated under their respective headings (see ARCHITRAVE, BASE, CAPITAL, COL UMN, CORNICE, ENTABLATURE, FRIEZE); but it may be desirable to state here the particular features and marks by which each order may be readily distinguished, and to point out some recent discoveries that have been made with regard to the method adopted by the Greeks to give the appearance of perfect beauty to their works, and to avoid anything that might offend the eye of any of this highly civilized and educated people. It should also be stated, that each order consists of two distinct parts, the column and the entablature , - which are again subdivided, the former into the base , shaft , and capital; and the latter into the architrave , frieze , and cornice; and that it is by certain differences in these divisions and subdivisions that the orders themselves are distinguished. The Doric order may be readily discerned by having no base to the column, the lower end of the shaft resting immediately on the pavement; the shaft itself is also adorned with broad shallow flutings separated by a sharp ridge, the capital being composed of a broad echinus moulding surmounted by an abacus, while the frieze is adorned at intervals with projecting pieces called triglyphs , which are about half the width of the lower diameter of the column, having the appearance of being separated into three equal parts by two vertical grooves cut eeply into the material of which it is formed, the horizontal section of which is in the shape of the letter V, the outer edges of the piece being chambered off at the same angle. This order was in some instances richly adorned with sculpture in low relief along the frieze, and in high relief on the metopes or spaces between the triglyphs, the tympanum of the pediment rising in an obtuse angle above the entablature being also filled with sculpture in high relief, and frequently with perfect statues. The Ionic and Corinthian capitals are to be distinguished from each other, the former by its volutes, and the latter by its exquisitely carved foliage and its height, which is considerably greater than that of the capitals of the Doric and Ionic orders. There is little perceptible difference in the shafts of the columns of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, or in their entablatures. The temples of the Greeks were generally placed on a level platform, consisting of three steps (Fig. 1197) rising one above another, and of greater or le depth in proportion to the height and diameter of the columns that were placed upon them. These steps were too deep to afford the means of acce to the temple, and it is supposed that intermediate steps were placed ať intervals along the larger ones, to allow the worshippers to pa easily from one to another, and thus to gain the level of the portico. The Greek windows and doorways, like those of the Egyptians, were narrower at the top than at the bottom, the sides inclining inwards. They were generally surrounded by a moulding, which was broken at the top of the window by a right angle, and turned outwards on either side, for a short space, in a horizontal direction, before resuming its perpendicular course, so that an architrave or lintel was formed above the window of the same width as the sill below. The doorway was always in the centre of the pro - naos , or portico of the temple, and was carried up to a considerable height for the purpose of admitting light into the interior. The arch is never employed in Grecian architecture, which is chiefly -characterized by the use of the beam supported on columns, by which an appearance of great strength and solidity is obtained. It is also marked by its strict adherence to outlines formed by horizontal lines, and lines that are vertical, or nearly so, being frequently slightly inclined inwards. It is a known principle in perspective, that straight lines proceeding to a great distance in the same direction present a slightly curved appearance to the eye of an observer. To correct this appearance, the Greek architects carefully constructed their vertical and horizontal lines in the form of a very slight and scarcely perceptible curve, giving their columns an en tas is , as it is termed, or a slight outward swelling near the middle; which principle of construction was effected by means of certain fixed rules. The columns also, instead of being vertical, had a slight inclination inwards, and their pavements, and the platforms on which the temples stood, were constructed with a very slight rise in the centre. Mr. Pennethorne discovered the existence of these curves in 1837, and the truth of his statements was subsequently corroborated by Mr. Penrose, who examined many of the ruined temples of Greece, and made careful measurements of their proportions, which led to a discovery of the principles on which they were constructed. Of the three orders of Grecian architecture, the Par the non at Athens (Fig. 1197), and the Temple of Minerva at Ægin a (Fig. 37), may be cited as the best examples of the Doric order; the Erechtheum and Pandrosium at Athens, of the Ionic order; and the choragic Monument of Lysicrates (Fig. 594), in the same city, as the most beautiful and almost the only existing pure Greek specimen of the Corinthian order. Examples of the Doric and Ionic orders, or rather adaptations of them, are common in modern architecture, one of the best, if not the best, being the Girard College (Fig. 1160) in Philadelphia. There are but imperfect data for determining the style of architecture adopted among the Greeks for dwellings of a private character. Greek Church, also called the Greek Catholic, the Orthodox Greek , the Orthodox , or the Eastern Church , originated in the di ensions that took place between the patriarchs of Constantinople and the popes of Rome. In consequence of the political position of the city as the seat of the imperial government, the Church of Constantinople sought to render itself independent of the See of Rome. Disputes on various points of doctrine occurred from time to time between the two churches, but the great breach did not take place till 802, under the patriarch Photius. He reproached the Western Church with having introduced various innovations, -as the celibacy of the priests, the introduction of images into churches, and the double proce ion of the Holy Ghost, with the addition of "filioque" (and from the Son) to the Nicene Creed. On the fall of Photius, however, the breach was in a manner healed, though very imperfectly, and in the 11th century di ensions broke out afresh. The final separation took place in 1054, when Leo IX. excommunicated the patriarch Michael Cerularius, who had inveighed against the corruptions of the clergy, and attacked the errors of the Western Church. Several attempts were made on either side to effect a reconciliation, but in vain. The popes were anxious to effect a union in order to extend their dominions; and the emperors of Constantinople, when pre ed by the Turks, attempted to obtain the a istance of the West by a promised restoration of the Eastern Church to that of Rome. At a later period attempts were made by some of the Protestant churches to come to an amicable arrangement with the Eastern Church, but with like unsatisfactory results. The Greek Church denies the authority of the Pope, and maintains that the Church of Rome is not the only true Catholic church. It acknowledges no vicar of Christ upon earth like the Pope; disclaims infallibility, works of supererogation, and indulgences. It rejects purgatory, but admits of prayers for the dead; and forbids all kinds of carved images, but permits paintings, and pays a kind of secondary homage to the Virgin and saints. It denies auricular confe ion to be a divine command, but practises confe ion attended with absolution, and sometimes penance. It admits the seven sacraments, but baptism is performed by immersion of the body three times in water; and the communion of both kinds is practised with leavened bread, and the wine is mixed with water. The anointing of the body with the chrism is allowed to all sick persons as a means of restoring them to health, and purifying them from their sins. The secular clergy are permitted to marry but once, and only a virgin; and laymen are allowed to marry only three times. Like the Roman Catholic Church, it accepts tradition as well as the Bible, but differs from it, as well as from all Protestant churches, in maintaining that the Holy Ghost proceeds only from the Father, and not also from the Son. The ritual of the Greek Church consists almost entirely in outward ceremonies, preaching or religious instruction being rarely resorted to. Their fasts are more numerous and more strictly observed than those of the Roman Catholics. The clergy are divided into two cla es, the higher and the lower; the former comprising patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops, all of whom are chosen from among the monks, and must live in celibacy; the latter, the monks, or black clergy (from their dre ), and the secular, or white clergy. The lower secular clergy are the archpriests, priests, deacons, hypo deacons, and lectors. The Fig. 1198.- A GREEK CHURCH. monks, as well as the nuns, who are le numerous, generally follow the rule of St. Basil, with the exception of those of mounts Sinai and Lebanon, who follow the rule of St. Anthony. One of the most celebrated convents is that of mount Athos. The total number of persons belonging to the Greek faith is estimated at about 66,000,000; of whom about 49,000,000 are in Ru ia, 12,000,000 in Turkey, 3,500,000 in Austria, 900,000 in Greece, 180,000 in the Ionian islands, 125,000 in Monte negro, and about 3,000 in Pru ia. As regards its government, the Greek Church is made up of ten independent groups, numbering in all 279 bishoprics. 1. The Church of Constantinople, governed by a patriarch, having under him 136 bishops; 2. the Church of Alexandria, under the patriarch of Alexandria, whe resides at Cairo, and has five bishops; 3. the Church of Antioch, with its patriarch and 17 bishops; 4. the Church of Jerusalem, with its patriarch and 14 bishops; 5. the Ru ian Church, with 60 bishops, governed by a synod; 6. the Church of the island of Cyprus, with four bishops; 7. the Austrian Greek Church, with 11 bishops; 8. the Church of Mount Sinai, with 1 bishop; 9. that of Monte negro, with 1 bishop; and 10. the Hellenic Church in Greece, with 24 archbishops and bishops. Besides these ten divisions of the Greek Church, which recognize each other as orthodox, there are a number of sects, particularly in Ru ia, which fully acknowledge the doctrinal basis of the Greek Church, but for various reasons keep aloof from it. The Greek Church predominates over all Ru ia, European Turkey, Greece, the Ionian Islands, and Monte negro. In Turkey, the patriarch of Constantinople has not only spiritual, but also a kind of temporal jurisdiction, as he is regarded by the Turkish law as the head of the Greek Christians, who have to pay him a yearly tribute. The Ru ian Greek Church a erted its independence on the fall of Constantinople, in the middle of the 15th century, when a patriarchate was established at Moscow. The patriarchate was abolished by Peter the Great, whc organized a supreme court for the regulation of spiritual matters, to sit at the new capital of St. Petersburg. Since that time the Church of Ru ia has been virtually controlled by the Czar. The United Greek Church is a section of this body, which, by the continued efforts of the Roman Church, were induced to acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope, while they, on the other hand, were permitted to abide by all the peculiar usages of the Greek Church which did not affect fundamental doctrines; - as the use of the Greek language in divine service, the reception of the Lord's supper in both kinds, ., . In Ru ia, almost all the members of the United Greek Church were induced, under the reigns of Catharine IIL. and Nicholas, to di olve their connection with the Church of Rome; and at present this section of them is most numerous in Austria. Total est. strength, 1896, 98,000,000, over 70,000,000 being in Ru ia. For an account of the ceremonies, liturgies, ., of the Greek Church, see Neale's History of the Eastern Church. Greek Empire, (The.) ( Hist .) The G. E. , also styled EMPIRE OF THE EAST, or BYZANTINE EMPIRE, was founded in 395, A. D., when Theodosius the Great divided the Roman Empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honor i us. The former, a feeble and luxurious character, was made emperor of the Eastern division, comprising Syria, Asia Minor, and Pontus, in Asia; Egypt in Africa; and Thrace, Mœsia (now Bulgaria), Macedonia, Greece, and Crete in Europe. Arcadius let the govt. of the empire fall from the hands of his minister Rufinus into those of the eunuchs Eutropius and Gainas, and lastly to the shamele empre Eudoxia, who ruled until the time of her death, 404. After Theodosius II. had held the reins during 6 years, he resigned the govt. in favor of his sister Pulcheria, who ruled powerfully, while her brother was kept apart from all state affairs. After the death of Theodosius II., Pulcheria married the senator Marc i an us (450457), whose firmne repelled the invasions of Attila, Marc i an us was followed by Leo I., surnamed Macella (the Butcher), a Thracian of low birth, but elevated to the throne by the commander-in-chief, Aspar, who, being himself an Arian, would not venture to encounter the perils that sovereignty might have entailed on one of his religious views. Leo II., grandson of the former, succeeded, but died after a few months, in consequence of which the crown came into the po e ion of his father, Zeno (474-491), who was banished by Basiliscus (475), but who reascended the throne in 477. Though a weak and unpopular ruler, he contrived to retain his power in spite of several serious revolts. Ariadne, widow of Zeno, by her second marriage raised the courtier Silen tiar i us to the throne under the title of An as tas i us I. (491-518). By the help of the Goths, this monarch overthrew, after a six years' contest, the robber tribes of Mount Taurus. A new enemy, however, now appeared on the Danube in the Bulgarians, against whose desolating raids An as tas i us built the Long Wall, to protect the peninsula on which Constantinople lies. The war with the Persians also broke out anew during his reign, and religious tumults often purpled the streets of Constantinople itself. After his death, the army raised Just in us I. to the throne. His nephew, Just in i an (q. v.), succeeded (527565), and became celebrated by his code of laws, and by the victories of his great generals, Belisarius ( q . v.), and Narses, (q. v.) But the rapid decline of the empire after his death showed that he had not been able to give it any internal consolidation or vitality. It was during the reign of Just in i an that those pestilent contests of the Blues and Whites against the Greens and Reds (political factions so named from the colors respectively worn) first attained any consequence; and though the first disturbance was terribly chastised by Belisarius in 532, they continued to distract the capital periodically down to the 7th century. Justin II. (565-578), a weak man, governed by his wife Sophia, yielded a part of Italy to the Longobards, was unsucce ful against the Persians, allowed the Avari to plunder the Danubian provinces, and ultimately became insane through vexation and anxiety. Tiberius, the captain of the guard, was then made regent, and after the death of Justin II. received the imperial dignity. He ruled with mildne and prudence (578-582), purchased a peace with the Avari, concluded the war with Persia, and left as his succe or the commander-in-chief Mauricius, whe reigned from 582 to 602. His niggardly treatment of the army caused a military insurrection, in which he was slain along with his son; and Phocas, one of his generals, was elevated to the throne. Phocas proved a bad ruler. Through his monstrous vices, tyranny, and incapacity for government, the empire lapsed into still deeper anarchy. Suddenly, however, a deliverer appeared in the person of Heraclius ( q . v.), son of the exarch or governor-general of Africa, who headed a conspiracy, marched to Constantinople, overthrew the tyrant, and ascended the throne, 610. But great as was the genius of Heraclius, he had to submit to twelve years of defeat before he could organize and discipline a victorious army. In 622 he opened those magnificent campaigns in which the power of Persia was crushed, and which, in the opinion of Gibbon, were equal to those of Scipio or Hannibal. He lived, however, to see more formidable foes in the Arabs, who, inspired by fanatic zeal, and led by the Caliph Omar, captured, during 635-641, the countries on the Euphrates, with Syria, Judæa, and Egypt. The power of the Greeks, which was demanded to resist the Arebian invasions, was miserably divided and weakened by their unending religious quarrels, especially the controversy of the Orthodox against the Monothelites, (q. v.) The empire was breaking asunder, and Heraclius, now worn out with the fatigues of war, had abandoned his enervated senses to pleasure, and his enfeebled intellect to theological discu ions. He died in 641. Const an tine III., who succeeded his father Her aol i us, also died soon after, and was followed by Heracle on as, who lost the crown, and was mutilated in an IMG:content-0442.png:[graphic] GREE Insurrection. The next ruler was Constans, son of Const an tine III., who ruled from 642 to 668, made himself odious by cruelty, and perished in an insurrection. His son, Const an tine IV., Pogonatus (668-685), enforced a treaty of peace on the invading Arabs (675) by his succe ful use of the Greek fire in warfare. Just in i an II. (685-711), son and succe or of Pogonatus, was victorious in a war against the Monothelite Maronites; but was defeated by the Bulgarians (688), and by the Arabs (692). His cruelty caused an insurrection, at the head of which was Leontius, who, in 695, deposed him, cut off his nose (hence his surname Rhinotmetus ), and banished him to the Tauric Chersonese; in 705 he was restored to the throne, but adversity had taught him no wisdom. A part of his subjects revolted, and the king, abandoned by his army and by the Bulgarians, was a a inated in 711. With him the dynasty of Heraclius expired. Philippic us Bardanes (the leader of the last insurrection against Just in i an II.) was next raised to the throne (711); but after having made himself odious by favoring the metaphysical tenets of the Monothelites, he was deposed and brutally deprived of eyesight (713). His succe or, An as tas i us II., prudently screened himself from a mutinous army by retiring into a monastery (716), and left the crown to Theodosius III., who abdicated in 717, when Leo, the I saurian, and general of the army of the East, did not recognize him, and marched with hostile intent to Constantinople. Leo (q. v.) himself ascended the throne in 717, and drove back the Arabs from Constantinople, but unhappily gave occasion, in 726, for that contest concerning the worship of images which rent the empire for more than a century. In 728 the exarchate of Ravenna was lost, and the eastern provinces became the prey of the Arabs, over whom, however, he won a great victory in Phrygia. He died in 741.- Const an tine V. (741-775), son of Leo III., "be on account of his zeal as an iconoclast, was hated by the monks, who gave him the surname "Copronymos, cause he had polluted the font at his baptism. He was a brave ruler, recovered from the Arabs parts of Syria and Armenia, and ultimately defeated the Bulgarians, against whom he had long been unsucce ful. His son, Leo IV. (775-780), was a mild ruler. After him Const an tine VI. ascended the throne under the guardianship of his ambitious mother, Irene ( q . v .), who raised a powerful party in favor of image-worship. Const an tine having made an attempt to liberate himself from the influence of his mother and her paramour Stauratius, Irene barbarously caused her own son to be blinded (797). He died soon after this atrocity; and Irene, who had boldly conceived the design of marrying the Emperor Charlemagne, and thus uniting the east and west of Europe in one vast realm, excited the opposition which, in 802, placed her treasurer, Nicephorus, on the throne. Irene was banished to Lesbos, where she died in 803. Nicephorus, who fell in battle against the Bulgarians (811), was succeeded by his son Stauratius, who soon yielded the throne to his brother-in-law, Michael I., from whom it was taken by the Armenian general Leo V., a powerful ruler, who conquered the Bulgarians, but fell (820) in a conspiracy excited by his zeal against image-worship. Michael II., the "Stammerer," was raised from a dungeon to the throne, and ruled until 829. In his reign, Crete and Sicily pa ed into the hands of the Arabs. Under the reign of his son, Theophilus, praised by the Byzantine historians for his love of justice (829-842), The odor a, widow of Theophilus and guardian of Michael III. (842-867), brought the controversy about images to a close at the Council of Nicaea (842), when the worship of these was fully sanctioned and re-introduced. The odor a, having been banished to a convent by her son, the government was for some time held by Bardas, uncle of Michael III., and after his a a ination, by Basilius I., the "Maced on i an," who caused Michael to be put to death, and afterwards ruled ably from 867 to 886. But though on the whole succe ful against the Arabs, the latter contrived to make themselves masters of Syracuse. His dynasty (the Maced on i an) maintained itself on the Byzantine throne, with some few interruptions, until 1056. The reign of his son, Leo VI., the "Philosopher" (886-912), was not prosperous. The inroads of the Bulgarians and of the Arabs, who, in 904, plundered The alonica, continued to increase during the government of his son, Constar.tine VII., "Porphyrogenitus," who ruled mildly but feebly (912-959). Under his son, the di olute Roman us II. (959-963), Crete was retaken from the Arabs by the vigor of his general, Nicephorus Phocas, who, on the death of the emperor, married his widow, Theophania. She, however, caused him to be murdered in 969, as she wished to marry John Tzimiskes, who ruled till 976, and, like his predece or, was victorious against the Arabs and Bulgarians, and also the Ru ians, who about this time began to emerge from obscurity as an enemy of the Byzantine power. His succe or, Basilius II. (976-1025), the son of Roman us, conquered the Bulgarian kingdom, and attached it as a province to the empire, which it remained till 1186, when it again became independent. His brother, Const an tine VIII. (1025-1028), did not resemble him. Roman us III. next ascended the throne, but was a a inated by his wife Zoö, a profligate but crafty prince , who raised succe ively to the imperial dignity Michael IV. (1034), Michael V. (1041), and Const an tine IX. (1042). Meanwhile, Ru ians and Arabs devastated the realm. In Asia, the Seljuk Turks proved dangerous enemies; while in Lower Italy the Normans narrowed the Byzantine power to the po e ion of Otranto. After Const an tine's death, in 1054, The odor a, sister of Zoo, was elected empre ; and on her death, in 1056, Michael VI., who was deposed by Isaac I., (Comnenus.) -With Isaac I., (Comnenus,) who same to the throne in 1057, the dynasty of the Comne Greek'e , n. A female Greek. (R.) Greek Fire, n. ble nature, supposed to have been formed of naphtha, pitch, and sulphur. It is said to have been invented about 670, by Callinicius of Helio polis, in the reign of Const an tine III., and used with terrible effect against the fleet of the Saracens. It burst into a flame on ex- posure to the air, and burned under water. It was hurled upon the enemy from cro -bows and other en- gines of war. G. F. was used against the Crusaders at the siege of Acre under Richard I., and was a recog- nized means of defence before the invention of gun- powder. the The Hellenes were an Ionian race, and their language riginal inhabitants came to be looked upon as barbarous. is said to have had an affinity to the Persian. It is but right to state, however, that this account of the origin of the Greek language is not universally received, for the subject is so involved in doubt, that no certainty can be arrived at regarding it. The Greek is a branch of the so-called Indo - Germanic , or Aryan family of languages. It consists of three principal dialects, Eclic, Doric, and Ionic: to which, at a later period, was added the mixed Attic dialect; and besides these there were several minor dialects. The Doric was a rough, hard, broad dialect, with long a predominant over all the other vowels. It was spoken originally in the moun tains of The aly, whence it travelled southward, and became the language of the greater part of the Pelopon nesus. It was purest in Me enia, and softest in Syracuse and Agrigentum. Its centre was Sparta. It is found in the writings of Pindar, Theocritus, Bion, and Maschu. The Folic was a more ancient dialect than the preceding, but was refined at an earlier period, and was le harsh than the Doric, although also broad and open. It was spoken north of the Isthmus of Corinth (with the exception of Megaris, Attica, and Doris), in the Æolic colonies of Asia Minor, and on some islands of the Ægean Sea. It contains some of the Pelasgic forms, and is to be found in the fragments of Sappho, Myrtis, and Alcæus. The Ionic is the softest and most musical of all the dialects. It abounds in vowels and diphthongs, and is partial to labials and linguals. It was the earliest cultivated of the dialects, and is that of Homer, and other of the early authors, as Hesiod, Hero dot us, . It was spoken principally by the people of Attica and the Ionian colonies of Asia Minor. The Attic sprang from the Ionic, from which at first it differed but little. It was developed principally after the Persian wars, and was brought to perfection by the poets, philosophers, and historians of Greece, who flourished after that time. It held a middle place between the hardne of Æolic and Doric, and softne of the Ionic. It was harmonious and powerful in its expre ions, concise and regular in its syntax. Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripi des, Thu cydides, Aris toph anes, Plato, Demosthenes, and I so crates, have rendered it immortal. Grammarians afterwards distinguished between the genuine Attic, as it exists in these masters, and the Attic of common life, calling the latter the common Greek, or Hellenic dialect ; and even the later Attic writers, posterior to the golden age of the literature, were called Hellenes , or common Greeks. In this latter cla are Aristotle, Theophrastus, Apollo dor us, ever, wrote genuine Attic. -At what time this language Polybius, Plutarch, and others, many of whom, how first began to be expre ed in writing is a question of much uncertainty. According to tradition, Cadmus the Phœnician introduced the alphabet into Greece about 1500 years B. C. To him sixteen of the letters of the present alphabet are attributed; four, according to Pliny, were introduced by Palamedes at the time of the Trojan war, and four by Simon ides of Ceos during the Persian war. The ancient letters were all uncial, or what we call capital ; the present cursive or round letters occur first in inscriptions of the age August us, and resemble the Coptic forms. The Greeks wrote originally from right to left; afterwards alternately, the one line from right to left, and the next from left to right (called bon strophe don, as being the mode in which oxen ploughed in a field); and finally from left to right, as we do now. The Greek language may be termed the parent tongue of civilization. It is rich in roots, flexible in the formation of words, picturesque in its mode of expre ing thought, highly plastic and euphonious; simple and sublime in Homer, playful in A nacre on, majestic in Æschylus and Pindar, noble in Sophocles, pathetic in Euripi des, elegant in Xenophon, subtle in the Sophists, distinct in the Stoics, clear in Aristotle, and fluent in the orators. Its syntax is free, full of inversions, subtle and perfect, yet without obscurity. Its antiquity, its intrinsic excellence, its literature, and its influence on the progre of the fairest portion of mankind, challenge our deepest admiration. "In order," says Mure, "to the attainment of the highest excellence, it is e ential, first, that a language should be the original invention of the people who speak it; secondly, that this people should be gifted not only with a fine sense of euphony, but with variety and extent of intellectual powers. These favorable circumstances were combined in the case of the Greek in a greater degree than in that of any other known language. While it is in all e ential respects a radically original tongue, its me chanism, both in sound and structure, reflects all the harmony, versatility, and precision which mark the genius of the race by whom it is spoken." ( Language and Literature of Ancient Greece.) -The language of modern Greece is what is termed Romaic , or Neo-Hellenic. It differs from the ancient Greek chiefly in the formation of the tenses, and in the termination of the nouns; but the difference between the two is not greater than between the Doric and the Attic dialects of ancient Greece. The tendency of late years has been to a imilate it more and more to the ancient tongue; and a good ancient Greek scholar will have little difficulty in mak ing out a Greek newspaper of the present day. - The origin of Greek literature is lost in the darkne of antiquity. The earliest existing monuments of it carry us back to nearly 1000 years B. C., and even then we find the art of poetical composition existing in the highest perfection. The admirable structure and the wonderful language of the Homeric poems imply a long period of antecedent culture. Although both the Iliad and Ody ey display traces of the infancy of the nation, and manifest a spirit of simplicity peculiar to the childhood of sitions that belong to this age were equally distinguished by their appropriate excellence. In history we have Thucydides, born 471 B. c., whose work on the Pelopon- nesian war is not only the first specimen of what has Leen called philosophical history, but remains unsur- pa ed down to the present time. The historical works of Xenophon, born 447 B. c., though not equal to that of Thucydides in vigor of coloring and depth of reflec- tion, are yet adorned with every grace of narrative and description. In philosophy, to which the teachings of Soc- rates, born 468 B. c., gave a great impulse, we have the writings of Plato, born 428 B. c., and his pupil Aristotle, born 384 в.с. Plato was endowed with a brilliant im- agin at i on, and loved to soar into the highest regions of speculation; while Aristotle was a student and observer, practical results being the object of his investigations. He never entered the world of ideas with Plato, but everything he wrote embodied the results of careful and extensive observations, or comparison of observations. His works embrace the subjects of logic, rhetoric, phys- ics, metaphysics, natural history, and politics. Plato founded the Academic school, whose point of reunion was the Academy, on the Cephi us, north of Athens. Aristotle established the Peripatetic school in the Ly- ceum, near the Ili us, on the opposite side of the city. Public discu ion was the general rule in the Gr. republic. Solon, Pis i stratus, Miltiades, Aristides, Them is toc les, and Pericles were orators as well as legislators, counsellors, and generals. Pericles was the first to cultivate the art, and to adorn his mind with the teachings of philosophy, and general literary culture. The first rhetorical school Greek'-rose, n. The rose-campion. Green, a. ( comp . GREENER; super . GREENEST.) [A. S. grene; Low Ger., Dan., and Swed. grön ; Du. groen ; Ger. grün . The root is found in 0. Ger. gróên , A. S. grovan, to become green.) Having the color of growing plants; being of the color of herbage and plants when growing; verdant; of a color between blue and yellow; emerald. -New; fresh; recent; vigorous; full of life; undecayed; as, a green old age. at Athens was opened by Georgias of Leontine. Other - Unripe; immature; as, green fruit, green geese, . - sophists and teachers of rhetoric were Prot agoras, Pro- dicus, Hippias, . Among the A then i an orators whose works are extant, in whole or in part, are Antiphon, An do cides, Lysias, I so crates, Lycurgus, Hype rides, Æs- chines, Demades, Demosthenes, and Dinarchus. Mathe- matics was now cultivated, and geography served to illustrate history. Astronomy is indebted to the Ionic school, arithmetic to the Italian, and geometry to the Academic school, for many discoveries. As mathema-n. ticians, The odor us, of Cyrene, Meton, Euctemon, Archy- tas, of Tarentum, and Eudoxus, of Cnidus, were cele- brated. Geography was particularly enriched by voy- ages of discovery, which were occasioned by commerce. The study of nature was likewise pursued by the philoso- phers; and the healing art, hitherto practised by the Æs- clepiades in the temples, was raised to a distinct science by Hippo crates. After the death of Alexander, although literature still continued to be cultivated in Greece, yet, till the Roman conquest, the principal seat of letters and science was Alexandria; and this period is called the Alexandrian age. Its characteristics were erudi- tion, criticism, and the study of science; and in poetry, the only original species was the bucolic or idyl. The principal poets were Bion of Smyrna, Theocritus, Ara- tus, Lycophron, Call i mach us, and March us. Mathema- tics, astronomy, and geography made great progre during this period. During the Roman supremacy, and down to the introduction of Christianity, the principal poet was Nicander; the most important prose writers, Polybius, Apollo dor us, Dionysius Thrax, Diodorus Sicn- lus, Dionysius of Halicarna us, and Dionysius Periegetes. From this period to the close of the Roman empire in the West, are two parallel series of writers, - the Pagan, and the Jewish and Christian. Of the former the more important are, Babrius, Strabo, Epictetus, Plutarch, Dion Chrysostomos, Arrian, Pausanias, Mar- cus Ant on in us, Aristides, Lucian, Diogenes Laertius, Achilles Tatius, Dion Ca ius, Athenæus He rod i an us, Phi lost ratus, Plot in us, Long in us Iamb lich us; of the latter, Joseph us Philo, the authors of the books of the New Testament, Clement of Rome, Just in us, Polycагр, Irenæus, Clemens of Alexandria, and Origen. From the establishment of the seat of government at Con- stantinople, A. D. 330, till the capture of that city by the Turks, A. D. 1453, the names in Greek literature are comparatively few. They comprise the series of authors known as the Byzantine historians ; the ecclesiastical and other writers, Eusebius, A than as i us, Gregory Nazi- anzen, Epiphanius, Synosius, So crates, Basilius, Geor- gius Pisides, Mulales, Georgius Syncellus, Nicephorus, Photius, Const an tine Porphyrogenitus, Leo (Philoso- phus) Theodosius; the rhetoricians and grammarians; a few poets, as Moschus, Quintus of Smyrna, Coluthus, Agathas, and in the 12th century, Ptochoprodomus; the romance writers Longus, Xenophon of Ephesus, Heliodor us; the historians, as Zosimus, Procopius, Anna Comnena, Chalcocydylas, . After the capture of Con- stantinople, intellectual pursuits languished under the tyranny of the Turk. - Since the establishment of the Greek kingdom, literature has made great progre in Greece, chiefly in the department of education, in which the publications have been innumerable. Works of dis- tiuguished merit have signalized the names of Tricoupi, the Rangabes, Sontsos, Asopios, - the History of Greek Literature, by the latter, challenging a fair comparison with similar works in other countries. Half raw; not thoroughly roasted. - Immature in age or judgment; young; inexperienced; raw; awkward; gauche; as, a green hand, a green youth. -Wan; of a sickly, pale-green color; as, "the green -sickne ." ( Garth .) -Unseasoned; not dry; po e ing its natural juices; as, green timber. Gree'ley, HORACE, an American journalist and author, B. at Amherst, N. H., in 1811. About 1825, his parents having removed to Vermont, Horace, who had always been a lover of books, obtained employment as an ap- prentice in a printing-office, and in Aug., 1831, arrived at New York, where he secured occasional work as a journeyman printer in various offices. In 1834, in part- nership with Me rs. Winchester and Gibbett, G. started The New Yorker, a weekly literary journal, which, after several years' trial proving unprofitable, was abandoned, and in 1841 he commenced the publication of the New York Tribune, a journal which has been eminently suc- ce ful. In 1848, G. was chosen to fill a vacancy in the Green, in Illinois , a flourishing township of Wood ford county. Green, in Indiana , a township of Grant co. -A township of Hancock co. -A township of Marshall co. -A township of Noble co. -A township of Wayne co. Green, in Michigan , a township of Mecosta co. -A township of Alpena co. Green, in Mi ouri , a township of Platte co. Green, in Ohio , a township of Mahoning co. -A township of Scioto co. Green/backville, in Virginia , a post-town of Ac comac county. Green Bank, in Pennsylvania , a P. O.'of Lancaster co. Green Bank, in New Jersey , a post-village of Burling- ton co., on the Mullica river, about 35 m. S. S. E. of Mt. Holly. Green Bay, in Iowa , a post-township of Clarke county. IMG:content-0443.jpg:[graphic][subsumed][subsumed] Green Bay, in Alabama , a post-office of Coving ton co. Green Bay, in Michigan and Wisconsin, a considerable arm of Lake Michigan. It receives numerous rivers besides the surplus waters of Winnebago lake by the Fox river, and extends from Brown co., in Wisconsin, to Delta co., in Michigan. It is 100 miles long and averages 25 miles in width. Its depth is said to exceed 500 feet. Green Bay, in Virginia , a P. O. of Prince Edward co. Green Bay, in Wisconsin , an important city, cap. of Brown co., at the mouth of Fox river, and at the S.W. extremity of Green bay, about 113 miles N. of Milwaukee; has very extensive manufs., including several breweries, saw mills which produce upwards of 150,000,000 feet of lumber yearly, cooperage works, flour and planing mills, cigar factories, etc. Being located on one of the best harbors of the Great Lakes, this city, enjoys a large and increasing shipping trade. Pop . (1895) 18,290.