COENA

( δεῖπνον ), the principal meal of the Greeks and Romans, dinner. (1) Greek. Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and Ody ey— ariston ( ἄριστον ), deipnon ( δεῖπνον ), dorp on ( δόρπον ). The word ariston uniformly means the early, as dorp on does the late meal; but deipnon , on the other hand, is used for either, apparently without any reference to time. In the Homeric age it appears to have been usual to sit during mealtimes. Beef, mutton, and goat’s flesh were the ordinary meats, usually eaten roasted. Cheese, flour, and occasionally fruits, also formed part of the Homeric meals. Bread, brought on in baskets, and salt ( ἃλς , to which Homer gives the epithet θεῖος ), are mentioned. The Greeks of a later age usually partook of three meals, called acratisma ( ἀκράτισμα ), ariston , and deipnon . The last, which corresponds to the dorp on of the Homeric poems, was the evening meal or dinner; the ariston was the luncheon; and the acratisma , which answers to the ariston of Homer, was the early meal or breakfast. The acratisma was taken immediately after rising in the morning. It usually consisted of bread, dipped in unmixed wine ( ἄκρατος ), whence it derived its name. Next followed the ariston or luncheon; but the time at which it was taken is uncertain. It is frequently mentioned in Xenophon’s Anabasis, and appears to have been taken at different times, as would naturally be the case with soldiers in active service. We may conclude from many circumstances that this meal was taken about the middle of the day, and that it answered to the Roman prandium . The ariston was usually a simple meal, but of course varied according to the habits of individuals. The principal meal was the deipnon . It was usually taken rather late in the day, frequently not before sunset. The A then i ans were a social people, and were very fond of dining in company. Entertainments were usually given, both in the heroic ages and later times, when sacrifices were offered to the gods, either on public or private occasions; and also on the anniversary of the birthdays of members of the family, or of illustrious persons, whether living or dead. When young men wished to dine together they frequently contributed each a certain sum of money, called symbole ( συμβολή ), or brought their own provisions with them. When the first plan was adopted, they were said ἀπὸ συμβολῶν δειπνεῖν , and one individual was usually entrusted with the money to procure the provisions, and make all the nece ary preparations. This kind of entertainment, in which each guest contributed to the expense, is mentioned in Homer under the name of ἔρανος . An entertainment in which each person brought his own provisions with him, or at least contributed something to the general stock, was called a δεῖπνον ἀπὸ σπυρίδος , because the provisions were brought in baskets.—The most usual kind of entertainments, however, were those in which a person invited his friends to his own house. It was expected that they should come dre ed with more than ordinary care, and also have bathed shortly before. As soon as the guests arrived at the house of their host, their shoes or sandals were taken off by the slaves and their feet washed. After their feet had been washed, the guests reclined on the couches. It has already been remarked that Homer never describes persons as reclining, but always as sitting at their meals; but at what time the change was introduced is uncertain. The Dorians of Crete always sat; but the other Greeks reclined. The Greek women and children, however, like the Roman, continued to sit at their meals. [ Accubatio . ] It was usual for only two persons to recline on each couch. After the guests had placed themselves on the couches, the slaves brought in water to wash their hands. The dinner was then served up; whence we read of τὰς τραπέζας εἰσφέρειν , by which expre ion we are to understand not merely the dishes, but the tables themselves, which were small enough to be moved with ease. In eating, the Greeks had no knives or forks, but made use of their fingers only, except in eating soups or other liquids, which they partook of by means of a spoon, called μυστίλη , μύστρον , or μύστρος . It would exceed the limits of this work to give an account of the different dishes which were introduced at a Greek dinner, though their number is far below those which were usually partaken of at a Roman entertainment. The most common food among the Greeks was the μάζα , a kind of frumenty or soft cake, which was prepared in different ways. Wheaten or barley bread was the second most usual species of food; it was sometimes made at home, but more usually bought at the market of the ἀρτοπῶλαι or ἀρτοπώλιδες . The vegetables ordinarily eaten were mallows ( μαλάχη ), lettuces ( θρίδαξ ), cabbages ( ῥάφανοι ), beans ( κύαμοι ), lentils ( φακαῖ ), . Pork was the most favourite animal food, as was the case among the Romans. It is a curious fact, which Plato has remarked, that we never read in Homer of the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, however, fish was one of the most favourite foods of the Greeks. A dinner given by an opulent A then i an usually consisted of two courses, called respectively πρῶται τράπεζαι and δεύτεραι τράπεζαι . The first course embraced the whole of what we consider the dinner, namely, fish, poultry, meat, .; the second, which corresponds to our de ert and the Roman bellaria , consisted of different kinds of fruit, sweetmeats, confections, . When the first course was finished, the tables were taken away, and water was given to the guests for the purpose of washing their hands. Crowns made of garlands of flowers were also then given to them, as well as various kinds of perfumes. Wine was not drunk till the first course was finished; but as soon as the guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine was introduced in a large goblet, of which each drank a little, after pouring out a small quantity as a libation. This libation was said to be made to the “good spirit” ( ἀγαθοῦ δαίμονος ), and was usually accompanied with the singing of the paean and the playing of flutes. After this libation mixed wine was brought in, and with their first cup the guests drank to Διὸς Σωτῆρος . With the libations the deipnon closed; and at the introduction of the de ert ( δεύτεραι τράπεζαι ) the πότος , συμπόσιον or κῶμος commenced, of which an account is given under Symposium .—(2) Roman. As the Roman meals are not always clearly distinguished, it will be convenient to treat of all under the most important one; and we shall confine ourselves to the description of the ordinary life of the middle ranks of society in the August an age, noticing incidentally the most remarkable deviations. The meal with which the Roman sometimes began the day was the jentaculum , which was chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or the luxurious. An irregular meal (if we may so expre it) was not likely to have any very regular time: two epigrams of Martial, however, seem to fix the hour at about three or four o’clock in the morning. Bread formed the substantial part of this early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed the prandium or luncheon, with persons of simple habits a frugal meal, usually taken about twelve or one o’clock. The coena , or principal meal of the day, corresponding to our “dinner,” was usually taken about three o’clock in the time of Cicero and August us, though we read of some persons not dining till near sunset. A Roman dinner at the house of a wealthy man usually consisted of three courses. The first was called promulsis , antecoena , or gustatio , and was made up of all sorts of stimulants to the appetite. Eggs also were so indispensable to the first course that they almost gave a name to it ( ab ovo usque ad mala ). The frugality of Martial only allowed of lettuce and Sicenian olives; indeed he himself tells us that the promulsis was a refinement of modern luxury. It would far exceed our limits to mention all the dishes which formed the second course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, the Guinea hen ( Afra avis ), the pheasant ( phasiana , so called from Phasis, a river of Colchis), and the thrush, were most in repute; the liver of a capon steeped in milk, and beccaficos ( ficedulae ) dre ed with pepper, were held a delicacy. The peacock, according to Macrobius, was first introduced by Hortensius the orator, at an inaugural supper, and acquired such repute among the Roman gourmands as to be commonly sold for fifty denarii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck ( anas ), especially its head and breast; the woodcock ( attagen ), the turtle, and flamingo ( phoenicopterus ), the tongue of which, Martial tells us, particularly commended itself to the delicate palate. Of fish, the variety was perhaps still greater; the charr ( scar us ), the turbot ( rhombus ), the sturgeon ( acipenser ), the mullet ( mull us ), were highly prized, and dre ed in the most various fashions. Of solid meat, pork seems to have been the favourite dish, especially sucking pig. Boar’s flesh and venison were also in high repute: the former is described by Juvenal as animal propter convivia natum . Condiments were added to most of these dishes: such were the muria , a kind of pickle made from the tunny fish; the garum sociorum , made from the intestines of the mackerel ( scomber ), so called because brought from abroad; alec , a sort of brine; faex , the sediment of wine, . Several kinds of fungi are mentioned, truffles ( boleti ), mushrooms ( tuberes ), which either made dishes by themselves, or formed the garniture for larger dishes. It must not be supposed that the artistes of imperial Rome were at all behind ourselves in the preparation and arrangements of the table. In a large household, the functionaries to whom this important duty was entrusted were four, the butler ( prom us ), the cook ( archimagirus ), the arranger of the dishes ( struct or ), and the carver ( carptor or sci or ). Carving was taught as an art, and performed to the sound of music, with appropriate gesticulations. ——“minimo sane dis crimine refert, Quo vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur.” In the supper of Petronius, a large round tray ( ferculum , repositorium ) is brought in, with the signs of the zodiac figured all round it, upon each of which the artiste ( struct or ) had placed some appropriate viand, a goose on Aquarius, a pair of scales with tarts ( scriblitae ) and cheesecakes ( placentae ) in each scale on Libra, . In the middle was placed a hive supported by delicate herbage. Presently four slaves come forward dancing to the sound of music, and take away the upper part of the dish; beneath appear all kinds of dre ed meats; a hare with wings to imitate Pegasus, in the middle; and four figures of Marsyas at the corners, pouring hot sauce ( garum piperatum ) over the fish, that were swimming in the Euripus below. So entirely had the Romans lost all shame of luxury, since the days when Cincius, in supporting the Fannian law, charged his own age with the enormity of introducing the porcus Trojanus , a sort of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other animals.—The third course was the bellaria or de ert, to which Horace alludes when he says of Tigellius ab ovo usque ad mala citaret ; it consisted of fruits (which the Romans usually ate uncooked), such as almonds ( amygdalae ), dried grapes ( uvae pa ae ), dates ( palmulae , caryotae , dactyli ); of sweetmeats and confections, called edulia mellita , dulciaria , such as cheesecakes ( cupediae , crustula , lib a , placentae , artolagani ), almond cakes ( coptae ), tarts ( scriblitae ), whence the maker of them was called pistor dulciarius , placentarius , libarius , . We will now suppose the table spread and the guests a embled, each with his mappa or napkin, and in his dinner dre , called coenatoria or cubit or i a , usually of a bright colour, and variegated with flowers. First they took off their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch, which was often inlaid with ivory or tortoise-shell, and covered with cloth of gold. Next they lay down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow and supported by cushions. There were usually, but not always, three on the same couch, the middle place being esteemed the most honourable. Around the tables stood the servants ( ministri ) clothed in a tunic, and girt with napkins; some removed the dishes and wiped the tables with a rough cloth, others gave the guests water for their hands, or cooled the room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth behind his master’s couch, ready to answer the noise of the fingers, while others bore a large platter of different kinds of meat to the guests. Dinner was set out in a room called coenatio or diaeta (which two words perhaps conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction as our dining-room and parlour). The coenatio , in rich men’s houses, was fitted up with great magnificence. Suet on i us mentions a supper-room in the golden palace of Nero, constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to change with every course. In the midst of the coenatio were set three couches ( triclinia ), answering in shape to the square, as the long semicircular couches ( sigmata ) did to the oval tables. An account of the disposition of the couches, and of the place which each guest occupied, is given in the article Triclinium . IMG:6459379820872971714_ill097.jpg: A Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.)