ENGLISH, FRANK CLARE

(1869), 3 American College President. 3B. in Ohio. Bachelor of Arts of University of 4 Cincinnati and Baldwin University 1897. Drew ‘Theological Seminary, 1897 and Ohio Wesley an University, 1908. Doctor Divinity Moores Hill College, Indiana 1904. Ordained 1894 Methodist Episcopal Minister. Was Pastor 1900-1904 of Columbia Methodist Episcopal Church, Cincinnati. President Moores Hill College 1904-1908. President Cincinnati Training School 1908-1909. President William and Vashti College, Illinois 1911-1915. Director for the Interchurch World movement for Surveys American Hospitals and Homes in 1919. Was General Secretary and Treasurer of Protestant Hospital A ociation of America. Writes on popular subjects, economics and sociology. Was director of University of North Dakota, longs to the Teutonic group of the Aryan or Indo-European languages, which comprise most of the literary languages of Europe. Teutonic is further subdivided into Scand i nay i an and Germanic, to which latter group English helongs, Originally it was a Low or N. German dialect or collection of dialects spoken by the Angles, Jutes, Saxons, and Frisians dwelling on the N.W. coast.of Germany and in modern Schleswig-Holstein, and the languages which i¢ resembles most to-day are Dutch and Frisian. On the English coming to Britain A.D. 449-547, they found it occupied by a Celtic race, just freed from Roman government, speaking in the towns a Latin dialect and in the country at large a Cymric or Britannic form of Ceitic fram which Modern Welsh is deseended, From these two languages the English learnt practically nothing; the names of their oldest cities are Latin (cf. Chester, from castra, ‘Camp’); most af the rivers (cf. Avon, Esk, Ouse) and hillg (Pennine Chain) are Celtic; otherwise the only words probably of Celtic origin, that English owes to the Early Britens are down (a hill), combe, bin (, ‘&@ manager’), dun (the colour), crack (a pitcher), and one or two others. Between 597 and 630 Hngland was taught Christianity, in the 8, by the Roman Augustine, in the N. by the Irish man Aidan, and through-this new teaching English first became a literary language. The history of the language: as seen in this literature has been divided into three periods—Old English A.D. 630-1150, Middle English 1150ae and Modern Hnglish 1550 onwards. 4 About 1550 the Modern English period begne This has been called the Period Lost Endings, as most of the:inflectional endings disappeared during it (cf M.#. drinken— Modern B. drink), But the most important change of this period was in the sound of the accented vowels (chiefly when long), which altered from the sounds they still have on the Continent to their present sounds in Hnglish (e.g., in mate, hide, but). The gutteral ch sound has also disappeared, although represented in spelling (cf. light), which, for the language as a whole, has scarcely altered since 1600. The great influence upon English language in the 16th cent. was the Renai ance, or revival of cla ical learning. This led to many more words being borrowed from the Latin and Greek, not through Freneh, but directly, During the Hi liz a be than period English attained a curious verbal flexibility which distinguishes it to-day from other European languages: a word, originally one single part of speech, may be used as any other part of speech (e.g., clean, originally an adjective, is an adverb in clean gone, a verb in to clean, and a noun in to have a clean). And many writers after 1600 enriched English with words of their awn coinage. In the 18th eent. more words were borrowed from French (¢.g., eide) and from Italian, chi-wy musical (opera, soprano, piano, tenor). In the 19th cent. and after, the gro th of science and philosophy led to many more words being formed from Latin and Greek, such as telephone, locomotire aeroplane, psychology, dogma, automobile, The chief characteristic of Modern English is not elegance, but tersene and yigour, which renders it the best language for busine purposes. ‘The practical side of the Eng. race is shown in the simplicity of its grammatical forms and the logical order of its sentences. An unpractical side is show in the archaic and unphonetic spelling, dating from the 16th cent. Another characteristic of English which renders it capable of high poetie expre ion is its wealth of synonyms, arising out of the two languages, Teutonic and Latin, that | build i d up its vocabulary. By means of these synonyms, English more than any other language can differentiate between the emotional and the intellectual idea, erature in its beginnings is a ociated ‘with the introduction of Christianity. The first known native writer was Caedmon, a monk of Whitby Abbey d. 680, ‘but only a fragment of his verse rendering of the Book of Genesis remains. It is, however, believed that a considerable oral literature existed before his day. ‘This consisted of heroic legends. Some of these traditions were probably re duced to writing in the 7th cent. examples surviving in the epic fragments known as Widsith, and the fine poem, Beowulf, in which are told the adventures of that hero with the monster, Grendel. Bede's Ecclesiastical History belongs to the 8th cent., but was written in Latin. The next considerable writer after Caedmon and the unknown author of Beowulf is Cynewulf (8th cent.), who wrote the poems Christ, Elene, Fates of the Apostles, and Julian a. To the 10th cent. belong the two excellent poems, The Battle of Brunanburh and The Battle of Maldon. Eng. prose began with the trans. by King Alfred d. 901 of Lat. originals, and the same great king is credited with having commenced the Saxon Chronicle. Other later prose writers were Ailfric and Wulfstan. With the exception of these and the Chronicles of Peter borough and Worcester, there was little native literature of merit from the death of Alfred to about the middle of the 13th cent.—thanks to the troublous times (Danish invasions, Norman Conquest, etc.). Another writer who claims notice was Layamon (jl. 1200), whose poem Brut was derived from Geoffrey’s chronicle, and the Anglo-Norman poet Wace. This poem introduced the Arthur i an story into Eng. literature. The Norman Conquest introduced a new language and a new literature, the influence of which was long felt; but though many of the legends and traditions then introduced became incorporated in Eng, literature, there were many others, such as Havelok the Dane, King Horn, Guy of Warwick, which were of native origin, and, though first written in Norman-French, had a umed @ vernacular form by the middle of the 13th cent. From this period to the age of Chaucer 1340-1400 and his contemraries, though there was a growing iterature, there was nothing of outstanding merit, save the exquisite lyric ‘Sumer is icumen in’ (c. 1250), and perhaps another lyric, ‘Alison’ (c. 1300). Age of Chaucer.—Fr. influence was still strong in England when Chaucer produced his Canterbury Tales and other poems, but though his subjects were often derived from Fr. sources, his| genius transformed all that he touched and gave it distinction and native character. Chaucer was the first of the great Eng. poets, and the most notable literary figure of his age. Several of his contemporaries, however, demand consideration, amongst the most notable being John Gower, who wrote Confe io A mantis, William Lang land, author of the Vision of Piers Plowman, and Laurence Minot, who wrote, in a north_ern dialect, stirring poems in celebration of the victories of Edward II. ‘To these succeeded three poets of a distinctly Stephen Hawes. Eng. prose is represented by the writings of John Wyclif, 1320-84, Sir John Mandeville, and Sir Thomas Malory’s Morte d’ Arthur 1470. Mention must also be made of the considerable body of ballads, many of which may be attributed to the 15th cent. A school of Scots poetry came into existence during this period, which was not without its influence on later Eng. literature, the authors including Bar Douglas. The trans. of Froi art, by Lord Berners, commenced to appear in 1523, between which date and the earlier publication of the Morte d’ Arthur Caxton had translated and printed numerous prose romances and other works. Amongst other contributors to the wealth of Eng. prose must be mentioned Sit Thomas More 1478-1535, author of the History of Richard III., and the theological writers and translators, Tyndale, Latimer, Cover dale, and Cranmer. Elizabeth an Age.—Eng. poetry, which had somewhat declined since Chaucer’s death, was revived and developed by two young men of noble birth, Sir Thomas Wyatt 1503-42, and the Earl of Surrey 1517-47. They experimented in new measures, and introduced Ital. forms of verse, and so provided the vehicles of expre ion for later and greater poets. The brave and courtly Sir Philip Sidney 1554-86, achieved something approaching greatne his Astrophel and Stella sonnets, and Arcadia; and the second great Eng. poet was discovered in his friend, Edmund Spenser 1552-99, whose Faerie Queene and other poems are amongst the masterpieces of | Eng. poetry. Amongst notable prose works belonging to this period may be mentioned Roger Ascham’s Tozophilus and The Schoolmaster, Richard Hooker’s Ecclesiastical Polity, John Principal Navigations, and the numerous writings of Francis Bacon. The dominant feature of Eng. literature in the age of Elizabeth was the drama, which began at an earlier period with the Miracle, Mystery, and Morality plays, and which reached its highest development in the hands of Shakespeare. But it may be noted that many of the dramatists of this period also achieved more or le distinction as narrative or lyric poets. Thus Marlowe would be notable if only for his narrative poem, Hero and Leander; Ben Jonson, besides being a great dramatist, was the author of Underwoods and some of the ‘most exquisite lyrics in the languaget George Chapman translated the Iliad and the Ody ey; and if Shakespeare had | never written a single play he would still | be a great poet by reason of his incom-|The parable Sonnets, his Venus and Adonis, | and The Rape of Lucrece. There was| who also a considerable body of Elizabeth an | and early Jacobean writers, others than | able dramatists, who were distinguished as of poets, and amongst these may be named | lived Michael Drayton, author of Polyolbion, | Nyumphidia, etc.; Samuel Daniel, famed |left for his epistles and sonnets; William|larger Browne, who wrote Britannia’s Pastor-| als; the lyric poets, Thomas Campion and Thomas Carew; William Drummond | and of Hawthorn den, the sonneteer and|the friend of Jonson; and that quaint and crabbed poet, Dr. John Donne, the first of the ‘Metaphysical School.’ Several of these poets, as has been noted,|of overlap into the Stewart period, but in style and manner they belong properly | Other to the age of Elizabeth. Age of Milion.—The latter part of the | 17th cent. may be cla ed as the age of| But Milton. Amongst the courtly poets of | this time were Wither, Suckling, Waller, | was and Cowley, and all Milton’s own early | works poetry was written oefore the outbreak | of the Civil War and the overthrow of the monarchy. But the severe rule| of the Puritans, who closed the theatres yan, and discouraged all forms of worldly | Samuel pleasure, made itself felt in the literature of the period. Milton’s poetic masteriece, Paradise Lost, was written in his “r years, and not published until seriousne and religious fervour dominated all they wrote. Prominent amongst — red are os sky ee erbert, Henry Vaughan ‘the Silurist,’ and Francis Quarles. Robert Herrick 1591-1674 was, however, a bard of another type. B. in the reign of Elizabeth, he d. in the same year as Milton, and his — ype tat gine work = distinguished by its wit, paganism, an lyric charm. The note of high seriousne and the spirit of contemplation which distini: the poetry of the Miltonic period is to be found no le in the prose. Milton himself, besides being one of the greatest of Eng. poets, was a writings Burke novels and William worthy of remark that England’s greatest epic, Paradise Lost, was published seven years after the Rest or at i on. dominant figure in the country’s literature of this period was Dryden, was forty-three years of age when Milton died, and whose first consider poem was his Stanzas on the Death Oliver Cromwell 1658. Had Dryden in any other period than that in which he did, he would doubtle have the world his debtor by a much body of fine poetry; for the exigencies of his life compelled him to pander to the depraved taste of his age, his work for the stage constitutes larger part of his output. This, notwithstanding his contribution to England’s poetical literature, was very considerable, and the masculine vigour his lines has secured for him an honoured niche in the temple of letters. poets of this time who cannot be overlooked were Prior, Marvell, and Samuel Butler, the author of Hudibras. though the output of poetry was somewhat meagre, the harvest of prose singularly rich, and includes the of such various writers as Sir William Temple, John Locke, Gilbert Richard Baxter, George Fox, John Bunand the diarists, John Evelyn and Pepys. of tho great eel dmund and Oliver Goldsmith, and theSterne. Two poets of eminence, Cowper 1731-1800 and George. Crabbe 1754-1832, form a connecting link between the 18th and 19th centuries. The poetry of the former is distinguished by a gentle domesticity; that of the latter by a stern and rugged realism. Daniel Defoe has been referred to as ‘the father of the Eng. novel.’ It is true there had been fantastic ‘romances’ published in, England long before the days of Defoe, but they were chiefly adaptations from foreign sources, and were not by any means ‘novels’ as we now understand the word. Defoe was a journalist and pamphleteer by profe ion, and not until he was nearly sixty did he first turn his attention to fiction, and write his master-piece, the picaresque yet moral story Robinson Crusoe 1719-20. It was followed by his other autobiographical stories, Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, and Colonel Jacque. Samuel Richardson 1689-1761 was over fifty years of age when his first novel, Pamela, appeared; this, together with its two succe ors, met with much appreciation. Richardson understood female character, but his men were not drawn with so firm a hand. Fielding: 1707-54, began his Joseph Andrews as a, burlesque ef Pamela, but he was a writer of too original genius to remain content with arody, and the completed work failed n its earlier intention. In Tom Jones he produced a far greater work, which is generally considered his masterpiece. He was a more vigorous writer than Richardson, and drew both men and women equally well. Smolett. 1721-71 was a novelist, of coarser fibre. He gave the flesh-and-bleod sailor to Eng. fiction; he drew largely on the adventurous element; but he is often unpleasantly coarse. Laurence Sterne 1713-68, by. virtue of his. Tristram Shandy and Senti~ mental Journey, has secured a place among the great novdlists. After these came several writers of fiction who can be but named—Horace Walpole, Clara Reeve, Mrs. Radcliffe, ‘Monk’ Lewis, enry Mackenzie, Robert. Bage; and fanny Burney, Maria Hdgeworth’s first. novel appeared in 1800, Jane Austen’s in 1811, Sir, Walter Scott's in 1814, and Susan Ferrier’s in. 1818, See, Noveu, The 19th Centwry,—In poetry a: period, of. transition from the artificial style of the. 18th: cent. was reached in: the works of. Cowperjand Orabbe, The next dominating influence, was that: of, Robert Burns: Like. Shakespeare;. borrewed not, a little, from his: predece ors; He owed, much to Robert Fergu en, and Allan Ramsay, But what-he: borrowed he subsequently made. his own, His sturdy. individuality, and. close kinship with nature paved the way for Words worth, who: became the high priest of Nature in all her.moods. Of Southey little need be said. The great body of his verse is forgotten, but he lives deservedly by his fine Life of Nelson and a handful of lyrics. Thomas Campbell 1777-1844 gave to Eng. literature a few poems which will not readily be forgotten; and the same may be said of Chatter ton and Blake. The 20th cent. desire for realism has led to Blake’s being hailed as ‘the English Nietzsche.’ The Ancient Mariner, Christ a bel, and a few other poems by Cole ridge are amongst the greatest treasures of Eng. poetic literature. Scott’s romantic poems marked an.epoch in Eng. literary history, but. his fame will rest almost entirely on the Waverley Novels. The arrogant and tempestuous genius of Lord Byron drove Scott from the field of poetry. and though Byron’s influence in literature and society lasted long after his death, it was subsequently effaced in England, though there have been gleams of a revival of appreciation. Shelley and Keats belong to the highest order of lyrical poets, and conquer by sheer beauty of form and expre ion. It is extremely unlikely that the: exquisite quality of their work can ever lack admirers. Tennyson, who succeeded: Words worth as poet-laureate, began as: an imitator of Byron and Keats, but he quickly a strong and. una ailable position in poetry. His. refined lyrical accomplishment, and his close interest:in the affairs of his time, secured’ for him an extensive popularity: The Arnold’s. poetry’ mai a deep’ appeal, and the excellenee of his craftsmanship: has. been generally admitted; Robert Browning. had: to wait long for popular’ recognition. But notwithstanding the — depth and: sincerity of! his: work,. the: grotesquene and) craggine of his style must ever militate against his succe with the general) reader. The — oetry of his: wife, Elizabeth Barrett able, the remotene in choice of subject. — and Green; art, criticism, philosophy, economics, and sociology by Hume, Carlyle, Ruskin, Arnold, Pater, and many others. Sir Walter Scott, who was the founder of the Eng. historical novel, i ued his last story in 1831. He had found a sedulous, though somewhat dull, imitator in G. P. R. James, who was already in the field, and met with considerable succe . Lytton and Beacons field both published their first novels in 1827; and Captain Marryat the earliest of his sea stories in 1829. After Scott, the next writers to give distinction to Eng. fiction were Dickens, whose Pickwick Papers appeared in 1837; and Thackeray, who though only one year the junior of Dickens, did not achieve much succe until the publication of Vanity Fair in 1847. fter these came a group of women novelists of eminence—the Brontés, George Eliot, and Mrs. Gaskell. It fis impo ible even to mention by name in this place the many writers who were once highly popular, but it may be observed that Anthony Trollope, Charles Reade, Charles Kingsley, and perhaps Wilkie Collins, have still their admirers. Robert Louis Stevens on combined fine \style and imagination. George Meredith and Thomas Hardy have created new schools of fiction, and there is at present no evidence to suggest the po ibility that their best work will be surpa ed, or even equalled, in the immediate future. Twentieth cent. King. literature shows the contest between romance and realism in poetry, fiction and drama; witne , ¢.g., Rudyard Kipling. The cult of realism has led to the identification of literature with sociology and litics. ‘This is seen in the works of ardy (to some extent), H. G, Wells, G. B. Shaw, and Arnold Bennett.