BLOOD

(blŭd). Syn. San′′guis , L.; Sang , Fr.; Blut , Ger. The general circulating fluid of animals, and that on which the nourishment and growth of their bodies depend, and from which all the secretions are formed. It is warm and red in vertebrated animals; and, for the most part, cold and white in the invertebrata. In man and all other mammals, and in birds—the two highest cla es of the animal kingdom—the blood, though collectively forming but one circulating stream, varies considerably in appearance according to the part or ve els in which it is found. That contained in the left side of the heart, and in the arteries, po e es a very brilliant scarlet colour, and is called arte′′rial blood; whilst that found in the right side of the heart, and in the veins, has a darkish purple colour, and is called ve′nous blood. The two, however, differ little from each other in their chemical properties and composition; the most marked point of difference being that venous blood holds carbonic acid in solution, whilst oxygen predominates in the blood of the arteries. The fibrine of venous blood is also soluble in a solution of nitrate of pota a; whilst that of arterial blood is insoluble in that menstruum. Comp. Blood consists of a transparent and nearly colourle fluid (plas′ma, se′′rum, sĕralbu′men), in which float about a countle multitude of microscopic round red bodies (blood-discs, blood-corpuscles), to which its colour is due, accompanied by a few colourle globules (white blood-corpuscles) of a somewhat larger size. The red corpuscles are found, on more minute examination, to consist of an envelope containing a solution of hæmatosin. Prop. These are, for the most part, well known. It has an alkaline reaction, a saline and rather disagreeable sweetish taste, and when newly drawn evolves a peculiar odour or halitus, which almost immediately disappears. As it cools and on repose it coagulates, owing, according to some, to the spontaneous solidification of the fibrine. The following table, based upon the observations of Schmidt and the analysis of Lehmann, is given by the latter, as representing the average quantitative relation of the principal constituents of normal blood. It will be noticed that the blood is here regarded as composed of two portions, one consisting solely of the red particles, and the other of the liquid, in which these red corpuscles are suspended, termed the liquor sanguinis , which consists of the serum holding fibre in solution:— Sp. gr. of Blood-corpuscles , 1·0885. | 1000 parts blood-corpuscles contain— | | Water | 688·00 | | Solid constituents | 312·00 | | consisting of— | | Hæmatin (with iron) | 16·75 | | Globulin and cell membrane | 282·22 | | Fat | 2·31 | | Extractive matters | 2·60 | | Mineral substances (without iron) | 8·12 | | Chlorine | 1·686 | | Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) | 0·066 | | Phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) | 1·134 | | Pota ium | 3·328 | | Sodium | 1·052 | | Oxygen | 0·667 | | Calcium phosphate | 0·114 | | Magnesium phosphate | 0·073 | Sp. gr. of Liquor Sanguinis , 1·028. | 1000 parts of liquor sanguinis contain— | | Water | 902·90 | | Solid constituents | 97·10 | | consisting of— | | Fibrin | 4·05 | | Albumen | 78·84 | | Fat | 1·72 | | Extractive matters | 3·94 | | Mineral substances | 8·55 | | Chlorine | 3·644 | | Sulphuric anhydride (SO3) | 0·115 | | Phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) | 0·191 | | Pota ium | 0·323 | | Sodium | 3·341 | | Oxygen | 0·403 | | Calcium phosphate | 0·311 | | Magnesium phosphate | 0·222 | The ash of blood contains about 6·84 per cent. of ferric oxide. (Lehmann.) The following table gives the results of the average composition of human blood in man and woman, according to the analyses of Becquerel and Rodie: | Male. | | Female. | | Specific gravity of defibrinated blood | 1·0600 | | 1·0575 | | Specific gravity of serum | 1·0280 | | 1·0274 | | Water | 779·00 | | 791·00 | | Fibrin | 2·20 | | 2·20 | | Fatty Matters | Serolin | 1·60: | 0·02 | 1·62: | 0·02 | | Phosphorised fat | 0·49 | 0·46 | | Cholesterin | 0·09 | 0·09 | | Saponified fat | 1·00 | 1·05 | | Albumen | 69·40 | | 70·50 | | Blood-corpuscles | 141·10 | | 127·20 | | Extractive matters | 6·80 | | 7·40 | | ——— | | ——— | | 1000·10 | | 1000·02 | | Salts | Sodium chloride | 3·10 | | 3·90 | | Other soluble salts | 2·50 | | 2·90 | | Earthy phosphates | 0·33 | | 0·35 | | Metallic iron | 0·57 | | 0·54 | | ——— | | ——— | | 6·50 | | 7·69 | The blood also contains, in solution, oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, as well as a free alkaline carbonate, urea, and small traces of alcohol have also been detected in normal blood. The following report of a commi ion composed of MM. Mialhe, Mayel, Lefort, and Cornil, appointed to devise the best method for the examination of blood stains, was published in 1873. The following translation of the report appeared in the ‘Chemical News’ of December 5th, 1873. 1st. When the stain is of recent date, or supposed to be so, the red corpuscles should be particularly examined, and every care taken to preserve them without change. The stains must not be washed with water, so that the hæmatin may not be altered. After insisting on the microscopic characters of the blood stains, isolated or compared with those of various animals, the commi ion enumerates with care the fluids which are destructive or preservative of blood-corpuscles. Among the first, water, and particularly hot water, acetic, gallic, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acids; and of alkalies, potash and soda, even in weak solution, and ether and chloroform, also many other reagents, so alter the blood-corpuscles as to cause them to entirely disappear. Alcohol, chromic and picric acids, and bichromate of potash, preserve the corpuscles, though they alter their form. The preservative fluids are those whose composition approaches nearest to serum, such as the iodised serum of Schultze, an excellent preparation made with amniotic fluid, to which are added a few drops of the tincture of iodine, so as to give it the colour of white wine; or, better, a fluid composed thus; white of egg, 30 grams; distilled water, 270 grams; and chloride of sodium, 40 grams; or even a fluid containing 0·5 per cent. of chloride of sodium, or 5 or 6 per cent. of sulphate of sodium. If the stains be wetted and softened by these fluids, and then examined, white and red corpuscles and fibroid particles will be observed. 2nd. In more difficult cases, when the microscope, owing to the alterations which time has effected in the hæmatin, can give but vague information, examination by the spectroscope and chemical analysis enables us to arrive at precise results. The use of these means being le known, and also more delicate, requires special study. 1. Spectrum analysis. Colouring matters have the power of absorbing certain coloured rays of white light—the same always for the same substance. This is the principle upon which spectroscopic examination is based. If into any analysing tube filled with water a few drops of solution of hæmoglobin be introduced, till it has the colour of peach-blo oms, the luminous rays of the spectrum pa ing through this fluid present two bands of absorption, in the lines D and E of Frauenhofer, in the yellow and the green. The same fact would be observed if a few drops of blood were substituted for hæmoglobin in the analysis. In a case of doubt the hæmoglobin of the blood could be reduced by adding to this latter a reducing body. Destroyed hæmoglobin has a different spectrum from oxygenated hæmoglobin, a single absorption band as large as the two former bands united, and a little to the left of Frauenhofer’s line D . 2. In blood in a state of decomposition, or which has been treated with acids or caustic alkalies, hæmoglobin is changed into a new substance; hæmatin is formed, which, combined with hydrochloric acid, gives definite crystals. In order to obtain them we must proceed thus:—A small fragment of dried blood is placed on a gla slide; it is di olved in a drop of water, and a minute portion of sea-salt added. It is covered with a thin slide, and pure acetic acid is made to pa between the two slides, and it is heated over a spirit-lamp to boiling-point; acetic acid is again added, and it is heated afresh; and this is repeated till the crystals are obtained. They are rhomboidal, of a dirty brown colour, quite characteristic, and require to be seen with a magnifying power of three hundred or four hundred diameters. With the smallest quantity of blood these two reactions can always be produced—the spectrum examination and the crystals of hydro chlorate of hæmatin; and they are so certain that the existence of one alone enables one to affirm the presence of blood. 3. The third proce , though not so exact as the preceding, ought, neverthele , never to be neglected. If to a very small quantity of blood di olved in a little water be added a few drops of tincture of guaiacum and of binoxide of hydrogen, a persistent blue colour is immediately produced; but this very sensitive reaction can be obtained with other organic matter, such as nasal mucus, saliva, .; it therefore only gives a probability. We must proceed in the following manner:—A tincture of guaiacum is prepared with alcohol at 83 degrees, and guaiacum resin; a mixture of sulphuric ether and binoxide of hydrogen is also made, and enclosed in a stoppered bottle, and kept under water in the dark. This preparation is le liable to change than pure oxygenated waters. The object stained with blood, if it be white, is put into a little cup, then moistened with water to di olve out the blood stain, and washed in distilled water; this water is then submitted to the action of these reagents. If the thing stained be coloured, and the stain little or not at all visible, it must be moistened, and then pre ed between two or three sheets of white blotting-paper, and tried first with the guaiacum. If the stain be of blood a reddish or brown spot will form on the paper. One of the sheets should be treated with ammonia, and the stain will become crimson or green. A second sheet treated with tincture of guaiacum and ozonised ether will give a blue colour more or le intense, according to the quantity of the blood. To recapitulate:—1. If the stains or scales of blood appear recent, the corpuscles may, after the nece ary precautions, be examined under the microscope, and their presence, diameter, . observed, which will enable one to diagnose the origin of the blood, whether human or animal. 2. If the stains be old and the blood changed, the reaction with the tincture of guaiacum would make the presence of blood probable; but its actual presence cannot be affirmed without spectrum examination or the production of crystals of hydro chlorate of hæmatin; one of the two is sufficient. It is unnece ary to add that these reactions do not show whether the blood is human or animal. Bullocks’ blood has of late years, more especially in France, come into use as a remedy for anæmia and pulmonary phthisis. A correspondent, writing from Paris to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ in 1872, says: “It is a curious sight to see the number of patients of both sexes and of all ranks and ages, who flock to the slaughter-house every morning to drink of the still fuming blood of the oxen slaughtered for the table. I was struck with the facility with which young ladies take to it, and I have heard many say that they prefer it to cod-liver oil.” In a paper read in 1872 before the Academy of Sciences in Paris by M. Bou ingault, detailing his researches into the composition of blood, the author expre ed his surprise that bullock’s blood was not more generally used as a food, as it contains all the constituents of a perfect aliment. According to the above chemist, of all nutritive substances the blood of animals contains the largest amount of iron. In man, Bou ingault found in 100 grammes of blood 51 milligrammes of iron; in that of the ox, 55 milligrammes; of the pig, 59 milligrammes; and in that of the frog, 42 milligrammes. But it was not only in red blood that iron was found, Bou ingault detected it in white blood also; and he found the blood of snails to contain as much iron as that of the ox or calf. A simple and ingenious method for the therapeutic administration of the serum of the blood of sheep and oxen has been lately devised by Dr Francis Vacher, the medical officer of Birken head. Dr Vacher takes the blood of these animals, allows it to stand until it clots, removes the clot, and dries it at a gentle heat in a hot-air chamber. By this means he obtains a nearly odourle and comparatively tastele powder, which is ten times the strength of fresh serum. To this preparation he gives the name “ serum sanguinis exsiccatum .” He believes that his dried serum will prove a valuable nutrient in consumption, scrofula, diabetes, and lo of flesh. Uses, . That of bullocks is employed for the clarification of wines and syrups; also in the preparation of adhesive cements, as the vehicle in coarse paint for outdoor work, as a manure, as a bleaching powder, to make pure animal charcoal, and for several other purposes. The blood of sheep, pigs, and bullocks, mixed with flour or oatmeal, and seasoned, is eaten by the common people, but it is rather indigestible, and apt to induce disease. Gut-skins stuffed with this mixture form “black puddings.” Bullock’s blood, dried by exposure in thin layers to a current of air, at a heat under 125°, and then reduced to powder, is exported in large quantities to the colonies, where it is used, as a ‘clarifier,’ in the sugar-works. Dried at a temperature ranging between 212° to 220°, then coarsely powdered, and the dusty portion sifted off, it is much used by fraudulent dealers to adulterate grain-musk. See Charcoal (Animal) , Globulin , Hæmatosin , Plasma , Serum , Stains , Vision , .