RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION

THE, organized in 1907 for the purpose of improving living and social conditions in the United States. It was endowed with $15,000,000 by Mrs. Ru ell Sage in memory of her husband. The work of the Foundation is largely educational. It studies social conditions and methods of social work and by publications and conferences seeks to awaken a helpful spirit in the community. The following departments are carried on: Charity Organization; Child-Helping; Industrial Studies; Library; Publications; Recreae tion; Remedial Loans; Statistics; Surveys and Exhibits. The special library, open to the public, contains over 20,000 volumes, 61,000 pamphlets, 250 periodicals and files of Federal, State and institutional reports. The library deon social questions. Robert de Forest, President; Mrs. W. B. Rice, vice-president; Headquarters, 130 West 22nd Street, New York City. Hills s., C to Caspian Sea by Ural and Volga river |} Tul: are supere imposed on the gnei . Silurian rocks South of the Ocean. Trias and Pere mian rocks are found in the N.E. The climate of the greater part of| European Ru ia is typically continental —a hot summer, a cold severe winter|and with sharp changes and dry winds, these conditions becoming more marked in| the center and towards the S.E. Con-|and side ring the range of latitude the differ-| ences between N. and S. are le than} might be expected, the temp. often falling in winter to 20° F, in the S. and| rising in summer to over 85° in the far| N. In the N, the rivers are frozen for over 6 months, in the center for 344 to 414, and in the S. for 2)4 to 4._ Rainfall varies from 25 m. along the Baltic 14 in the S. and S.H, and 6 at the N.| end of the Caspian; rain falls chiefly in summer. See Map or Ru ia. In the tundras bordering the Arctic Ocean no vegetation grows, except dwarf trees, shrubs, mo es, and lichens, but the district S. of this belt and extending round the Baltic Sea has great forests; flax is grown round the Baltic. The Black Sea is surrounded by pasture, Kharkov, Kursk. ‘Tobacco is grown ail over the 8. Large numbers of stock hair, and horns are exported, besides is exceedingly rich in minerals: Ru ia platinum, silver, Jead, zinc, copper gold, naphtha, and salt are infron, coal, creasingly mined. Coal comes chiefly Donetz basin; oil from the from the now in Azerbeijan republ ic Baku dist., 1917, 48,276,000 barrels). Wood (output is largely exported, the chief timber ports being Riga, Petrograd, Kronstadt, Poti. There are sawmills, manu- | factures of furniture, cottons, and yarns, dye and print works (Moscow, Vladimir, Petrograd), making of carpets and other woolens (Moscow, Kiev dist.), linens, ropes, silks, and silk embroidery, | Moscow, iron and steel, Tula, Moscow, | vars, Moscow, Petrograd, Tula, paper, | leather, etc. Communications.—The rivers are to|frozen in winter and low in summer, but excellent highways in spring and | autumn; 20,670 m. are navigable for basin of the Volga is connected with that of the Neva by the three systems of Vishnivolotsk, Tikhvinsk, and Marie, and with that of the N. Dvina by the system of Duke Alexander of Wurtemberg; the Dnieper is connected by the Berezina system with the 8S. Dvina, with the Niemen by the Oginsk canal, and with the Vistula by that of the Dnieper-Bug; the Niemen and Vistula are connected by the August in system. Of 35,987 m. of railway in 1913 much is at present unused or destroyed by war. In 1914 the mercantile fleet numbered History —Remains of Pal eolithic man have been found in Ru ia, and there are numerous relics of Neolithic and Bronze Age man, especially of the Lake-dwellers. Turk. and Finnish stocks from the Far East have been established for centuries when, po ibly in 8th cent., Slavonic tribes from the Danube and Elbe migrated into S. and N. respectively. The Finns were ultimately driven into Finland and Esthonia, the Turks southward and eastward, and it is unce how far those races mixed with the Slavs. The Ru ian tribes—the Great, Little, and White Ru ians—apparently came first in the Slavonic invasion, and filled the E. of this terr.; Bulgarians, QGzechs, Huns, Poles, etc., followed, or were driven by Ru ian pre ure, W. and §. They were an agricultural, pastoral people at this time, congregated in gentes, which it is believed were originally matriarchal. The Line of Rurtk.—There was no kingdom of Ru ia until the 16th cent., but wide districts were joined under one ruler long before that date. According to Nestor’s Chronicle, supposed to have been drawn up in the 12th cent. from earlier sources, the N. Slavs, who were gathered in Novgorod and_ its neighborhood, in 862 invited Varangians from Scand in a via to be their leaders. This was the supposed origin of the line urik, Which ruled Ru ia aR its former principality was (whence ‘Ru ia’), the precise meaning and locality of which are uncertain. The first rulers were the brothers| Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor; then who made Kiev the cap., and also regent for her son Svyatoslav, a famous} warrior, was baptized at Constantinople| famous son, Vladimir I. (980-1015), Saint, was baptized at Kiev in 988, his example was largely followed by subjects. He divided the principality between his sons, and this led to guinary civil wars. Yaroslav the Wise, 1019-54, made himself supreme over Ru ia; he had relations with foreign kings, and compiled the first Ru ian] legal code. A period of political turbance endured from his death the rule of Vladimir II., Mono mach us, 1113-25, under whom Ru ia appears as a prosperous medieval community of thriving cities; but another century and Va ili IE, the Blind, 1425-62. enin, their hold over Ru ia; but Tvan Ti. the Great, 1462-1505, finally shook Ivan called himself Lord ( Hoepodar) of all Ru ia, and his son, IIl. 1505-33, a umed the title of Czar. annexed the independent provinces and Pskov, thus uniting Ru ia. His mother, niece of the last Gr. emperor, Const an tine Palzologus, introduced into until] Ru ia the autocratic ideals which have Rusj|ever since been a ociated with the | Ru ian monarchy. The boyars ruled during bis young son’s minority, but when [van the Terrible, 1533-84, came Oleg,|of age he established the strongest ac-| despotism in Europe, making turbulent Olga,| cities and provinces the scenes of wholesale ma acres, and conquered Kazan, 1552, and Astrakhan, 1556. more| His general, Yermak, conquered Siberia; the| 1582. With his son Feodor, 1584-98, and| ended Rurik’s line. { his} Feodor’s brother-in-law, Boris Godsan-| through blood to the throne, and was | deeply detested. He had already in all | 1597 pa ed a law of which the effect was | to tie Ru ian peasants to the soil, and thus introduced serfdom. ‘The False dis-| Dmitri, who pretended to be Feodor’s until] murdered brother succeeded, but was | 1606-10. House of Romanov.—The strife of | numerous pretenders was ended by the first ruler of the ‘house of Romanov, Mikhael, 1613-45, a Ru ian candidate, elected in the face of Polish candidates, at that time very powerful. War with Sweden was satisfactorily ended by the Treaty of Stolbova, 1617, but the Poles were only satisfied by the surrender of Smolensk, 1634. His son Alexef, 1645-76, roused great discontent by confirming serfdom, 1648, but a rising of the Co acks was suppre ed, and a legal code was i ued. Feodor Alexetes vich, 1676-82, concluded the war with Turkey by which Little Ru ia was acquired, 1681. His sister Sophia established her mcy for her {idiot Biber, Ivan and_ their stepbrother off He beg bequeathed the throne | P He of | f. SA ey FE oe \> san. SCALE OF io MHLES 0 200 who [° | S7 100 2 Railroads daughter of Peter I. Elizabeth fully obtained po e ion of 1743, and her armies played a part in the Seven Years’ War. House _of Rom a nov Holstein. nephew, Peter III. of Holstein-Gottorp, ruled for a short space in 1762, was deposed and murdered in his wife, Catherine II. 1762-96. three partitions of Poland, 1772, 1795, Catherine considerably Ru ian terr., and in the two wars conquered the Orimea, pa age of the Dardanelles, her terr. to the Dniester, and a protectorate over Moldavia and achia; the war with Sweden, 1788-90 the status quo ante. Paul I., 1796-1801, son, was succe ful against France he was murdered, and his son, I. 1801-25, made peace with 1801, joined the third coalition Napoleon, suffered several defeats, again made peace with the emperor Tilsit, 1808, recetving Pru ian War with Sweden, 1808-9, resulted Ru ian ory Meas ag of Finland, by the third Turk. War, 1806-12 terr. was extended to the Pruth, she acquired Baku from Persia. ander having again joined the Napoleonic alliance, Ru ia was by Napoleon, who was obliged to after the burning of Moscow. took a prominent part in the Liberation and treaties of Paris. Vienna Congre gave Poland to ander, who in 1818 granted it a tion. He was the ruling spirit conservative Holy Alliance. His younger son, Nicholas I. was despotic and apparently He acquired the provinces of van and Erivan after the Persian 1826-8, the protectorate of the states and the freedom of Greece the Turk. War, 1828-9. A insurrection was punished by ‘independence, 1832. Turkey closed Dardanelles to all but Ru ian 1833. After controlling E. Europe thirty years, Nicholas died during humiliation of the Crime an War. is son, Alexander II. 1855-81, up the Treaty of Paris, 1856, the of the Danube and conceded the trality of the Black Sea. He the subjugation of the Caucasus, obtained Amur from China, 1860, established the DM of made the condition of the aur on the whole worse, and rea became at this time litical reatment of Polan: the ris 1863, and by his policy of Aclatinn pansion, and there was strong peace-| against the alliance of 1872 with Ger Finland, | many and Austria (the Dreikaiserbund). respectable | Ru ia was succe ful in the Turk. War of 1877-8; but the Treaty of San Stefano — Her | was set aside by the Berlin Congre , and | Ru ia gained little. One of many but|attempts at a a inating the COzar favor of] succeeded. By the Alexander TIT. 1881-94, bis son, ree 1793,|newed the Dreikaiserbund, 1887, but extended | gradually drew away towards France, Turk.| with whom he made an alliance, 1891. won the| Ru ia at this time lost her influence extended|over the Balkan peninsula. His _son, established | Nicholas IT. 1894-1918, continued an Wall-| ultra-Conservative policy. Mild ileft | tators and political a a ins were (>) her y in Italy | increased and culminated during the Alexander | reverses of the war with Japan. In France, | Dec. 1904 the Ozar published a man i against | fes to promising reform. The Peace of and | Portsmouth brought much lo of terriat| tory, and was a serious blow to Ru ian territory. prestige. During closing months of in 1905, the government was paralyzed, 1809;| nearly all parts being in open revolt. Ru ia’s | Government was forced to make cone while|ce ions; manifesto of Oct. 17, 1905, invaded 1906; it demanded larger powers and retreat | ministerial responsibility; this was reAlexander fused, and Duma was di olved. Second War of! Duma convened Marck 5, 1907; also The] di olved on land question. Electoral Alex-|law now changed in violation of the constituFundamental Laws, indirect system of the giving landlords and large manufacturers power to control selection of worke 1825-55) | men and peasant r resentatives. Third fanatical. Duma, convened Nov. 14, 1907, sat full Nahitche-| term of five years and introduced legisWar, | lati on of a progre ive character, but Danube public much disturbed at slow progre after | made. Outstanding facts of foreign Polish policy was Anglo-Ru ian agreement of ‘lo of| 1907 in regard to Persia, the precursor the] of closer a ociation with Britain. ships The in understanding between Japan and Rusfor| sia which began to develop almost the| immediately after the Ru o-Jap. War gre a formal agreement, pub. gave| July 1910. During the period 1907-14 mouth | the olicy of the government continued neufraneiy reactionary, and in the Duma completed | itself the reactionaries were able, with 1859, | the support of the government, to pursue and/a restrictive policy both in Finland and Turkestan|in Poland. The incipient Ukrainian Sikes movement, beginning as a demand for Nihilism also led to restri Measures, ¥ danger. ‘ of exhi climax in the Beilis trial vel feeling lft in indignation among the liberal elements | lov, fn Ru ia as well as abroad. On the eve} of the World War the internal situation | was gravely alarming. Workmen’s| May strikes had a umed large proportions, | and had led to street riots and armed | tion conflict. The Duma, though composed | of conservative elements, was in open| conflict with the government, and the} omy word ‘revolution’ was frequently heard.| of The main incidents following the declara- | tion of war are dealt with in the general| article on War, Ta WoRLD. The| threatened ‘revolution,’ due not only to the sufferings of the people during the | protracted struggle and the economic} situation in the large cities, but to the}matum dark forces’ within the government|Kornilov. itself, notoriously in the case of Striimer|by and Rasputin, first raised its head early| in March 1917. The main incidents} that followed are as follows:— 1917.—March 9: First collisions in|8: the streets between the police and the| crowds. March 12: Rodzianko, presi-| dent of the Duma, telegraphs to the Czar | urging that immediate measures should] 's taken; rising of the garrison in| etrograd and arrest of the Ozarist| ministers; formation of the Council of] to Workmen’s and _ Soldiers’ Delegates, Soviet; formation of the Provisional| Executive Committee of the Duma.| _ March 14: Formation of the Provisional] Government, with Prince G. Lvov as}tween prime minister. March 15: Abdication | of Nicholas II. March 21: Arrest of| Nicholas Il., who is taken to Tsars-| koye Selo. March 22: Recognition of| the Provisional Government by the U.S. | March 24: Declaration by Provisional | Government undertaking all the obliga- | tions of the Ru ian state as regards | loans, the execution of contracts, etc.| March 24: Recognition of the_Provisional Government by Great Britain, | France, and Italy. March 25: Aboli-| tion of capital punishment. March 30:| Recognition by the Provisional Govern-| ment of the independence of Poland. April 11: All-Ru ian Congre of the| Soviets under the presidency of Chkheidze (Menshevik). April 16: Arrival] of Lenin in Petrograd through Germany. | May 1: Note by Provision a. Government | on war aims. May 3: Demonstrations in the streets against the note of the Provisional Government on war aims.. May 4: Telegram from Soviet protesting | to the world against the policy Milyukov, minister for foreign affairs. | May 13: Resignation of Guchkov, min-| ister of war. Soviet denounces idea of| separate peace and_fraternizatio n with | enemy, but adds at the same time | the it is the capitalists who provoked | that the war and who consider it nece ary. May 14: Resignation of General Korn-! commander of the military dist. of Petrograd. May 15: Resignation of Milyukov, minister for foreign affairs. 17: Formation of second _government of Prince Lvov. June 4: Resign a of General Alexeiev, commander-in chief; succeeded by General Bru iloyv. June 24: The Rada proclaims the autonof the Ukraine. July 1: Beginning Ru ian military offensive. July 16-17: Bolshevist riots in Petrograd. July 20: Resignation of Prince Lvov. July 23: Formation of cabinet under Kerensky. July 31: Kornilov appointed commander-in-chief. Aug. 25: National Conference at Moscow. Sept. 8: Ultito Kerensky from General Sept. 11: Kornilov dismi ed Kerensky. Sept. 12: Kerensky appoints himself commander-in-chief. Sept. 27: Opening of All-Ru ia Democratic Conference at Petrograd. Oct. Trotsky elected_ president of the Petrograd Soviet. Nov. 7: Bolshevist revolution in Petrograd. Nov. 26: Opening of armistice negotiations with the Germans. Dec. 22: Opening of peace negotiations at Brest-Litovsk. Dec. 30: Trotsky appeals to the Allies take part in the negotiations. 1918.—Jan. 1: Finnish republic recognized by the Bolsheviks. Feb. 1: Decree concerning the creation of the Red Army. Feb. 9: Peace signed be the Ukraine and the Central Powers. March 3: Peace between the Bolsheviks and Central Powers at BrestLitovsk. March 16: Peace ratified at Moscow. April 5: Japanese land at Vladivostok. May 2: Ukrainian Government overthrown at Kiev; Skoropadski becomes Hetman. May 29: Fighting between Czecho-Slovaks and Bolsheviks breaks out in Siberia. July 6: Count Mirbach murdered in Moscow. July 7: Agreement between Entente Governments and Murmansk Soviet. July 16: Murder of ex-Czar Nicholas II. and his family at Ekaterinburg. Aug. 2: Allied |landing at Archangel. Aug. 3: Brit. Government decides to extend military bee Czecho-Slovaks in Siberia. Aug. 5: U.S. Government announces limi intervention in Siberia to protect the Czecho-Slovaks and a ist any efforts |made by Ru ians at self-government. Aug. 5: Arrest of Brit. official represen- |tatives at Moscow. Aug. 31: Brit. Emba y in Petrograd seized by Bolof|sheviks; Captain Cromie murdered. Sept. 24: Formation of Directorate of ment). Oct. 10: Death of General Alexeiev, commander-in-chief of Volunteer Army in 8. Ru ia he is succeeded; by General Denikin. Oct. 28: New government formed in anti-Bolshevist Omsk. Nov. 3: First peace proposal sent ne nn by Soviet Government to Allied Govern-| mente Nov. 18: Coup d’etat by Admiral ‘Supreme Ruler.’ Nov. 22: Fall Skoropadski, followed by new Ukrainian Government at Kiev under Petlura. Dec. 24: Litvinov sends letter to Allies making formal offer of peace. 1919.—Jan. 22: Note sent by Allied Governments from Paris to all belligerent parties in Ru ia to cease fighting send representatives to discu peace Prinkipo, March 2: Formation of Third International in Moscow. March Beginning of Koltchak’s offensive EK. Ru ia. April 19: Correspondence pub. between Allied prime ministers and Dr. Nansen on question of relief for population of Ru ia. June Beginning of Koltchak’s retreat. June 4: Allied Governments ‘agree to help Koltchak on certain conditions. Sept. Denikin captures Kiev. Oct. 14: Denilxin captures Orel. Oct. 19: Denikin’s retreat begins. Nov. 9: Brit. prime minister, speaking at Guildhall banquet, refers to the po ibility of peace with Soviet Ru ia. Oct. 27: Yudenich, after nearly reaching Petrograd, begins to retreat.|B Noy. 15: Red y takes Omsk. Dec. 22: Tchicherin addre es formal peace offer to Poland. 1920.—Jan. 16: The Supreme Council at Versailles decides to renew trade} relations with Ru ia through the Cooperative Societies. Jan. 29: Second Bolshevist peace proposal to Poland. Feb. 2: Peace signed between Soviet Government and Esthonia, Feb. 12:| Murder of Koltchak, March 25:}) Red Army takes Novoro isk; Denikin retires with remnant of Volunteer Army to the Crimea. April 4: Denikin resigns, resum: July 7: Soviet Government accepts Brit. conditions. July 11: Brit. prime Lithuania. July 18: Soviet Government rejects London Conference, but agrees to separate peace with Poland. July 20: an a Brit. Government informs Soviet Government that Poland has been urged to negotiate an armistice, and gives a of warning that_if Soviet forces enter ethnographic Poland, Allies will a ist | Poland. July 22: Poles ask Soviet Gov- | ernment for an armistice. Aug. 1: First meeting of Poles and Bolsheviks at | Bar a nov i chi. _ Aug. 2: Kra in and | Kamenev arrive in London. Bolsheviks and | take Brest-Litovsk. Aug. 6: Meeting at | between the Brit. prime minister and | Kra in and Kamenev. Aug. 11: Peace 16: signed between Soviet Government and in| Latvia. Aug. 16: Polish counter-offen- | sive; battle of Warsaw. Aug. 17:3 Opening of Conference at Minsk. Aug. | 20: Poles take Brest-Litovsk. Sept. 2:/ 11: Kamenevy leaves England. Sept. 21: Opening of Peace Conference be- | tween Poland, Soviet Ru ia, and the 2:| Ukraine at Riga. Sept. 25: Poles launch new Offensive against Bolsheviks in ‘ | 30: Poles agree to accept the League of Nations’ proposal for Dlebiscite in Lithuania for settlement of Vilna and other territorial questions. The Soviet government continued in | control in spite of various attempts at counter revolutions. The degree to which communistic principles, including | nationalization and the prohibition of | private capital was enforced, was mater= | ially modified however by a decree i ued in March, 1921. This was found nece ary on account of the almost absolute collapse of the economic system of the country under Bolshevik rule. Private capital with certain | Modifications was permitted to engage in industry and large conce ions were made to foreign companies. These included territory in the Baku oil fields and elsewhere. The conditions under which permi ion was given to work these conce ions was so difficult, however, that little attempt was made to carry them out. The chief efforts of the Soviet government during these years was to receive recognition from fo governments. This was steadily refused by the United States. Great Britain entered into a trade agreement, which, however, - had no practical value. Following the conference on the limitation of armaments in Washington, a conference was held at Genoa for the purpose of bringing about, if po ible, some sort of po ible arrangement between Ru ia ee emnmEEEnne foreigners in Ru ia. broke up without result, as did a second conference held at The Hague. -Lenine, the practical dictator of the country, had severe illne es in 1922-23. In the latter year he was several times reported dead, and he gave up all practical connection with government. Although the Soviet government declared that improvements had been made in all the economic and political phases of Ru ia, investigation on the part of impartial observers did not show this to be true. Paper money had depreciated to a point where it was practically yaluele . The circulation on July 1, 1922 totalled the almost unimaginable sum of 271,236,000,000,000 rubles. In 1923 the Soviet government began a persistent movement against the established church. The archbishop of the Catholic church in Ru ia and several other prelates were arrested on a charge of treason and were found guilty and sentenced to death. There was instant protest from ail civilized countries and the sentence on the archbishop was - commuted to ten years imprisonment. Bishop Buchavitch, second dignitary of the church, was executed. High officials of the Orthodox church were also arrested on the same charge. Difficulties arose with Great Britain in 1923 on account of the seizure of English trawlers in the Baltic sea beyond the three mile limit. The British government took an aggre ive and threatening attitude and the Soviet government finally consented to a conference. Plans for the formation of the Federated republic were published in April, 1923. Under this plan a second Chamber is constituted under which Ru ia proper, the Ukraine, and all the small self governing and semi self-governing disare to have equal representation of tricts members each. This Chamber is four there to include 120 members. In all are 8 independent republics, 8 auto no republics, and 14 independent mous districts. ‘The first Chamber already in existence, comprises 360 members el “fn proportion to population. Statistics of the total number of persons execu by the Soviet government showed that over 1,700,000 persons had been put to death, Of this $15,000 were peasants. The government in 1923 was in the of a committee. Leon Trotsky hands continued to be the most powerful of nena ae the actual rulers of the country. In 1921-2 a great famine prevailed throughout the wheat growing portions of the country. Following an appeal made by Maxim Gorky, the American Relief Administration under Secretary Hoover prepared plans for immediate relief. Congre appropriated $20,000,000 and private contributions aggregating even more were made in the United States. The work of relief was kept up throughout 1921 and the greater part of 1922, when conditions had improved to such an extent that outside relief was no longer nece ary. Millions of people died as a result of this famine. Constitution.—The final form of gove ernment, following the revolution of March 1917, is not yet settled. (Seo above.) The People’s Commi aries transferred the capital from Petrograd to Moscow, March 1918. Several states (e.g.) Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbeijan proclaimed their independence; the latter two were recognized by the Allies. Education was secularized, Dec. 28, 1917; there are eleven univs. including that of Perm, decreed 1917, and a women’s univ. at Petrograd, 1916; many institutions for special studies. All religions may be freely profe ed; prevalent religion is Orthodox (Grecoe Ru ian). and pop. cannot given except as rough estimates based mainly on pre-war figures. Area (exe excluding Esthonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Language and Literature—The lane guage is Slavonic, many dialects being spoken. It is in a highly inflected state, and is characterized by the aspects of the verb of which we find traces in all the other Aryan languages. It is rich and sonorous, and exhibits great flexibility. In ordinary use there are no more than thirty or forty Tartar words; the rest are purely Indo-European. Rus sia has various cycles of rhythmical romances. There are a few chronicles, beginning with the picturesque work of ing in unbroken series from the 11th cent, to the days of Alexis Mikhailovich. The first Ru ian book was printed in 1564, and the following century two remarkable writers, Kotoshikhin and izhanish, left interesting accounts of the condition of the people. The reforming labors of Peter the Great brought a great change over the country. She abandoned her Byzantine models and turned to the West, where pseudocla icism reigned. The new era begins with Trediakovski, 1683-1769, and Kan- | 1718-77, the playwright, Tatistchev, 1686-1750, the historian, and Lomonosov 1711-65, the scientist and poet. Kheras-| the great Derzhavin, and Karamzin|Port followed. ‘The Romantic movement, introduced by Zhukovski, was illustrated by the famous Pushkin, 1799-1837,| 1821-77. The later realistic school— toyevsky Anton Tchekov, Maxim Gorlky, etc.—has produced novels read all over Europe; their chief notes are pe imism, Soloviev are notable historians. Even} more widely famed than the Ru ian novelists are the composers Rubin stein, Korsakov. The plays of Leonid dreyev find many readers; his Burden of War is perhaps the best in Ru ian War literature. In natural science it must suffice to| mention the names of Pirogov, anato-| mist, Medeléeff, chemist, and Mechnikov, surgeon; while among mathematicians the name of Lobachevski stands high. No univ. in the world boasted such a| complete school for philological studies as that of Petrograd. The e ential ntl cause a of this war lies in: the conflicting interests of Ru ia _and| Japan on the mainland of Asia. Rus-| sia, in her endeavor to become a great Pacific naval power, A sought a port in the Far East which would be free from ice all the year round and which would form a good naval base. In 1896 she secured a lease of Port Arthur from] China, and connected this port with| St. Petersburg by means of the Trans-| Siberian Railway. She also sought to| transform Dalny into a great Asiatic port. In 1900 Ru ia extended power over the Chinese province of re ur, and Pepe a oe of er suzerainty over the country. Opposed by both Japan and England, she finally agreed: to evacua € te the whole of the territory which she had ‘filched’ from China in three consecutive periods of six months each. Beyond with-| drawing her troops from S. Manchuria| and Mukden, she failed signally to carry| out the terms of the agreement. Finally in 1903 a proposal S emanating n from Japan, and suggesting that the integrity of China and Korea should be vouched for by the contracting parties, at the| same time proposing that Ru ian in-]} terests in Manchuria and Japanese interests in Korea should also be safe-| guarded, was refused by an optimi stic and short-sighted Ru ian government No. further time was wasted by Japan, she withdrew her minister from St. Petersburg, and within forty-eight hours had landed troops at Chemulpo, and a | day later attacked the Ru ian ficct at Arthur. The Ru ian fleet in | Chemulpo Harbor was attacked by the | Japanese fleet which had accompanied the transports, and two of the Ru ian | fleet were sunk, The same day the Port | Arthur fleet met with disaster, three of | their ve els being blown up and at least | four of them badly disabled. The news | of these victories came more as a surprise |]to the Western _hations, since, while they had recognized that Ru ia was but badly prepared for war, they had | not recognized that the Japanese army | and navy were so efficient. _In April Ru ian fleet under Admiral MakAn-|harov was lured out to sea and then | attacked by Admiral Togo. The Rus- | sian fleet attempted to regain the harbor, but only got back after great lo , the Ru ian flagship, the Petropavlovsk, striking a floating mine and _ sinking. | Meanwhile a second Japanese army | under Oku had landed on the Liao-tung | peninsula and had won many victories. The railway communication between | the Ru ian army and Port Arthur was severed, Kinchau was captured, and after the victory at Nanshan, Dalny | was occupied by the Japanese and made a new base of operations. The general command of the army now pa ed to General N ogi, whose place was later | taken by Oyama, and gradually the Japanese armies began to close in and concentrate, the Ru ian general Kuropatkin quite failing to defeat them in detail. By the middle of July the Ru ians were forced back on the i base; then there followed a great battle which lasted for over a week and during which at least 30,000 men fell, The Ru ians | fell back before the victorious Japanese her|for about a month. Then a feigned | retreat drew them on again, until finally, Pi ape days’ fighting, Li-munt un | fell into the hands of t¢ anese. The defeat cost the be i ae 15,000 men. The main Rigge result r ysis of the td | fifteen days almost continual fighting, | which had started on Sept. 9, was lo to_the the Ru ians of over 50,000 men. ‘The investment of Port Arthur had in the meantime rapidly taken | place. 4 r strenuous fighting, each step being keen] contested, the main vantage points Dad been captured by | the Japane se. On Aug. 10 a naval sortie took place, but was defeated, broke n up, and driven back; and the Vladi vostock fleet coming to the aid of the Ru ians at Port Arthur was also badly defeated. On November | Metre Hill was captured, and the town | and harbor lay at the mercy of the big | Japanese guns. By the end of the year | the chief fortre es were in the hands of the Japanese, and on Jan. 2 Port Arthur surrendered, 40,000 men, 500 guns, and $5,000 rifles, together with all stores and ammunition, becoming the prize of the victors. Towards the beginning of 1905 desultory fighting began in the neighborhood of Mukden, where since the previous September little fighting had taken place, and finally, after nearly a month’s strenuous fighting, on March 10, Mukden was occupied by the Japanese. In October 1904 the Ru ian Baltic fleet had started on its ill-fated voyage. It created a sensation by firing on the Hull trawlers off the Dogger Bank, under the delusion that they were Japanese torpedo boats, and then continued its voyage to the Far East. There it was surrounded on May 27 by the Japanese fleet under the command of Togo in the Straits of Tsushima and practically annihilated; 4,000 men were killed, nearly 8,000 captured, and almost the whole fleet was sunk. This was the decisive battle of the war. In August terms of peace were arranged at Portsmouth, U.S., and the Ru ians received very favorable terms indeed. Ru ian rights in Port Arthur and Dalny pa ed to the Japanese; Sakhalin was divided between the opposing countries; no {ndemnity was to be paid by Ru ia, the Man chur i an railway became the property of Japan, Korea became a Japanese sphere of influence, Manchuria was evacuated by both armies and restored to China, while valuable fishing rights in the Behring Sea were ceded to Japan. Japan lost roughly about 170,000 men, while the war cost Ru ia about 400,000. The Ru ians conquered the Crimea in 1771, won the battle of Tschesme in the island of Chios. By the treaty of Kutshuk Kainardji, 1774, Ru ia extended her territory to the Bug, and obtained the protectorate of Moldavia and Walachia and the pa age of the Dardanelles. The Crimea was ceded, 1784. 1787-92, in which the Turks lost over 200,000 men. Suvarov was victorious at Focsani and Rimnik in 1789, and in Oczacow was conquer ed. In Turkey agreed to Treaty of Ja y, ceding tween the Bug and Dniester. 2.—Ru ia was defeated at 1806-1 _Gilistria 1809, but the tide turned, and the Treaty of Bucharest Ru . by territory was extended to the Pruth. 1828-29.—Britain, in suppor ting Gks. of Independence, weakened in War Ru . support to Greece had Turkey; is vi and Ru ia could further attack; of Europe, Turkey offere d to surprise resistance; wear i some camp a ign valiant with little result, 1828; but in 1829 Ru . general Diebitsch captured Silistria defeated the grand vizier, cro ed the Balkans, captured Adrianople, and forced Turkey to make peace. 1877-78.—Similar occasion to last, (i.e.) national risings against Turkeys cruel suppre ion of Bulgarian revolt roused indignation of Europe and gave Ru ia pretext for interference on behalf of Christian subjects of Turkey; fierce outery in Britain under Gladstone; international conference at Constantinople presented Porte with ultimatum rejected Jan. 1877; conference of London. in March failed, and Ru ia invaded European and Asiatic Turkey in April; Roumania declared her independence, and the Czar’s army under Gurko captured capital of Bulgaria, cro ed Balkans, and took Shipka Pa , but could get no farther; siege of Plevna lasted July 20 to Dec. 10, when starvation forced heroic defender, Osman Pasha, to surrender; meanwhile Turks were expelled from Monte negro and lost Nikshich and Kars, and Serbia again declared war. Gurko captured Sofla and won battles of Philtppopolis, Jan, 1878; Suleiman, now commander-in-chief of Turks, was cut off from Adrianople and forced to retreat and return to Constantinople by sea; he was not & skilful general, and had scattered his forces needle ly; Ru ians entered Adrianople and brutally drove Turks in flight. ‘The Serbians won victories of Pirot and Vranya, and Mon tene grins captured Spizza (an old ambition), Antivari, and Dulcigno; hostilities on news of armistice of Adrianople, Jan. 31. Britain had undergone reaction on hearing of Ru . succe es, and Conservative government, which returned to power under Disraeli, restored policy. of protecting Turkey; movement Brit. fleet to scene of war for protection of Brit. interests aided in ending conflict; terms of Treaty of San Stefano, March 3, were modified by Treaty of Berlin, July 3. IMG:map049.jpg: