Bossuet, Jacques

BENIGNE, ( boz's wai,) bishop of Meaux, a French prelate, celebrated for his eloquence as a pulpit orator, and his strength and acumen as a controversialist. B. at Dijon, 1627. He was placed when very young under the care of the Jesuits, who, on the discovery of his abilities, sought to gain him as an acce ion to their order, but were frustrated by the care of his friends. He was then removed to Paris, and entered at the College of Navarre, and in 1652, took his degrees in divinity, and was made a canon at Metz. Here he applied himself chiefly to the study of the Scriptures, and of the writings of the Fathers, especially of St. Augustine; and shortly becoming a celebrated preacher, was invited to Paris, and appointed, in 1661, to preach before Louis XIV It was about this time that B. excited so much attention by his funeral orations, which are still considered as surpa ing every other production of the kind in the French language for sublimity and pathos, although the admiration of the foreign reader, unacquainted with the genius of the French language, will not always correspond with native enthusiasm, as to all the beauties enumerated. His style of preaching was lofty, free, and animated, and he seldom wrote more than a few heads, but trusted to his copious and commanding eloquence. At court he fully maintained the dignity of character his abilities were calculated to establish, and, without any solicitation on his own part, was created bishop of Condom, -a dignity which he resigned on being appointed preceptor to the Dauphin, in 1670. In this situation he wrote for his pupil his cele brated Discourse on Universal History, regarded still as the most masterly of his performances. When the prince's education was completed, the king raised him to the See of Meaux, and appointed him a counsellor of state and almoner to the Dauphine and Duche of Burgundy. He was also equally honored by the learned world, being made a member of the French Academy, and superior of the Royal College of Navarre. The comparative leisure which he now enjoyed, was devoted to the defence of the Catholic Church, both against infidels and Protestants. Some years before his death, however, he retired to his diocese, and devoted his leisure to the duties of his episcopal and pastoral functions, in the comfort, instruction. and relief of the unlettered, the afflicted, and the indigent of his diocese. He D. while thus engaged, in 1704, at the age of 77. - As an historian, or rather reviewer of history, this eminent prelate has displayed considerable genius, but it has been justly observed that he dwells with too much complacency upon the Israel it ish theocracy as a system, and has treated history more like a churchman than either a philosopher or a politician. As a controversialist, B. is distinguished by great logical acutene , and infinite dexterity in exposing the weak points of an opponent and concealing his own. These qualities are particularly exhibited in his celebrated Exposition of the Roman Catholic Faith, addre ed principally to Protestants, which, however, was nine years awaiting the Popes approbation. The points on which he chiefly lays stre are the antiquity and unity of the churches, the accumulated authorities of fathers, councils, and popes, and the nece ity of a final umpire in affairs of faith and discipline. In all these points, however, he was ably answered by Claude and other ministers of the French Calvinists, as also by Archbishop Wake, who, in his Exposition of the Doctrine of the Church of England, exposes much management and artifice in the suppre ion and alteration of B.'s first edition. B. was very zealous for the reunion of the churches, but nothing was to be yielded as a matter of right; but he thought that the sacramental cup might be extended to the laity as a favor. He was not, however, an advocate for the infallibility of the Pope, or for his a umed right of deposing kings. On the contrary, he resisted these doctrines with energy, and lost a cardinal's hat by opposing Innocent XI. in claims contrary to the independence of the crown of France, and to the liberties of the French clergy. He also attacked Quietism, and triumphed over the amiable Fenelon with some harshne on that account. He was, however, a profe ed enemy to persecution, but does not appear to have remonstrated with Louis against his mercile persecution of the Huguenots. On the whole, B. was a man of great genius, lofty spirit, and extraordinary vigor of mind; which high qualities were alloyed by pride, and a deficiency of simplicity and candor, his character forming a moral contrast to that of Fenelon. His works were published in 1743, in 20 vols. 4to, and many of them have been often reprinted in various forms. His discourse on Universal History, and his funeral orations, are, however, the only productions of his pen which now command much attention. Bostan'ji, n . pl . [Türk., from bostan , a garden.) The cla of men who bear this name, who now perform a curious variety of functions, and whose head or chief ( Bostanji - Bashi ) is one of the grand dignitaries of the Turkish empire, seem originally to have been nothing more than the Sultan's gardeners, attached to the imperial residence, or seraglio, of Constantinople. They still work as gardeners, in the Sultan's pleasure-grounds at Constantinople and on the Bosphorus, but the more conspicuous of their duties are, to mount guard in the seraglio, to row the Sultan's barge, to row the caïques of all the officers of the palace, to follow those great men, on foot, when they ride on busine through the city, and to attend to the execution of the numerous orders of the bostanji-bash i. They were aggregated with the jani aries, with whom they formerly did military duty in the field, but the bostanjis were not suppre ed at the sanguinary di olution of that turbulent militia, although their number has been considerably decreased. When the Ottoman Court was in its splendor, the bostanji corps amounted to 2,500 men, who were divided into ortas , or companies, like the jani aries. The distinctive part of their costume was an enormous bonnet, or caouk , made of scarlet cloth. The bostanji - bash i , who has the rank of a pasha, is governor of the seraglio and the other imperial residences. He is inspector-general of the woods and forests in the neighborhood of Constantinople. The shores of the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmora, from the mouth of the Black Sea to the Straits of the Dardanelles, are under his jurisdiction, and formerly no person whatsoever could build or even repair a house on those coasts without his permi ion. For this license fees were exacted, which were generally fixed in the most arbitrary manner. anner. Whenever the Sultan makes an excursion by water, (and in the fine seasons he rarely travels in any other way,) the bostanji-bash i stands or sits behind him, and steers the mag. nificent barge, which is rowed by the bostanjis. This brings him into frequent contact and conversation with the sovereign, who never appoints any but personal favorites to the post. At court, the bostanji-bash i is almost as great a man as the kislar - aga (chief of the black eunuchs), or the selikdar (the Sultan's sword-bearer). Bos'ton, the chief city of New England, cap. of the State or Commonwealth of Ma achusetts, and forming with the city of Chelsea and towns of Revere and Winthrop, the co. of Suffolk; it is one of the first cities of the Union in commercial importance; is finely situated on a small peninsula at the foot of Ma achusetts Bay, and connected with the mainland on the South by Bовton Neck, and is distant 207 m. N. E. from New York; Lat. 42°21′24′′ N., Lon. 71°3′58′′ W. Includes the city of Roxbury (annexed in 1868), town of Dor chester (added in 1870), city of Charles town, and towns of Brighton and West Roxbury (annexed in 1874); by these additions 117,000 souls were added to the population. B. is divided into twenty-five wards. Several towns in its immediate vicinity are so closely connected with it as almost to belong to it. These are the cities of Cambridge, Chelsea, Somerville, and Newton, and the towns of Brook line, Revere, and Winthrop, and they may be considered as forming one community. The bay, which is very extensive, is studded with numerous small islands, which protect the harbor from the E. winds, and afford convenient situations for forts commanding the approaches to the city by water. The harbor is excellent, being of great size, with sufficient water to admit the largest ships, and so completely landlocked that the ve els within it are almost as secure as if they were in dock. At the outer entrance to the bay is a light-house 80 ft. in height, and 90 above the sea, with a revolving light. In the harbor are forts Independence, Winthrop, and Warren, and a strong battery on Long Island Head. The Boston Navy Yard, at Charles town, was established in 1800. The bridges, some of which are of great length, connecting the city with its adjacent suburbs and the continent, are nearly a score in number; but the city was joined by a causeway of earth to Brook line, and the Cro Dam, as it is called, leading acro the bay to Roxbury, was also formed of earth, with walls of stone. The avenue served the double purpose of a bridge and a dam; and with the addition of a cro dam of a similar construction, formed two large basins. These basins have been filled and 680 acres reclaimed, known as the Back Bay improvements, and most of it is already built upon. The wharves are very extensive: the Long Wharf and Central Wharf are each very commodious. The wharves, as well as many other parts of the city, have been built on sites formed by filling in ground, originally covered by the sea. Many of the down-town streets, once narrow and crooked, have been widened and straightened; and the houses, which are, for the most part of brick, though many of them are of granite and sandstone, are large, well built, and elegant. The principal public buildings are very imposing. The State-House, on the crown of Beacon Hill, is one of the most conspicuous objects in the city. It is a fine brick building, fronting the Common, and occupies the most elevated part of Beacon street, 100 ft. above the bay, surmounted by a gilded dome 50 ft. in diameter. From the cupola, a magnificent view is obtained of the city, the harbor, and the charming suburban approaches on every hand. The City Hall is a magnificent structure of the modern Renai ance style of architecture; the Faneuil Hall Market, a handsome granite edifice, two stories high, 590 ft. in length and 50 ft. wide, with a large hall in second story, known as Quincy Hall. The Court House is also of granite, 176 ft. long, 57 ft. high, and 54 ft. wide, adorned with ma ive Doric porticos. The General Hospital is another handsome granite building, surrounded by open grounds of 4 acres in extent. The City Hospital, City Bureau of Charities, Boston Athenæum, Horticultural Hall, Music Hall, Masonic Temple, Odd Fellows' Building, Ma . Institute of Technology, Building of the Boston Society of Natural History, Museum of Fine Arts, are fine examples of their respective styles. Among the more recent edifices we may name the Cathedral (R. C.), Trinity Church (P. E.), New Old South Church (Cong.), and the magnificent new Library building, opened 1895. The old State House, King's Chapel, and Old South Church are among the old landmarks of B. , the latter built in 1729. The Bunker Hill Monument at Charles increase in these figures. The net funded debt of the city is approximately $30,000,000.- History . The Indian name of the peninsula was Shawmut. The meaning of the name is probably "living springs of water." Tr mount aine was the name given to the peninsula because of the bold appearance of certain eminences in it. The name of B. was given by the first settlers to their chief colony in compliment to one of the distinguished first colonists, who came from Boston, in Lincoln shire. The original pioneer of the whites in this region was an eccentric English man, Wm. Black stone, the date of whose arrival is, however, not accurately known. It is Great improvements of late years have taken place in this city, nece itated in part by the filling-in and reclaiming of the Back Bay district, now the handsomest residence portion of the city. A subway for electric cars is one of Boston's latest great improvements, being rendered nece ary by the increasing congestion of pa enger traffic in the busine centre. This subway extends from Boylston st. via Tremont and Brattle sts., Corn hill and Washington sts. to the Union Dépôt. There are four tracks under Tremont st. opposite the Common, and two tracks elsewhere. The approaches are by incline, and the stations are very commodious. IMG:content-0718.png:[graphic] town is a well-known object of interest. Boston Common, a notable park of 50 acres, contains the Soldiers' Monument and Brewer Fountain. The Public Garden, contiguous to the Common, contains 21 acres, beautifully laid out. In it are an equestrian statue of Washington, and one of Edward Everett, and also the "Ether" Monument, as it is called, erected to commemorate the discovery of the use of ether as an anæsthetic; Commonwealth Avenue, running S.W. from the Garden, contains statues of Alex. Hamilton and of Gen. Glover of Revolutionary fame. To these have been added a chain 'of parks extending through parkways from the Back Bay Fens to the Marine Park in South Boston. There is also a series of parks and boulevards along the Charles river. The pre of B. is the oldest in the U. S. The first journal published in N. America was The News Letter, which was commenced April 24, 1704. The second paper was the Boston Gazette, commenced 1719, of which James Franklin was printer. B. has always been favorably distinguished by her attention to education and literature. By some the city has been called the Athens of America, and in its vicinity is the celebrated Harvard College (q. v.). Schools of all denominations abound, and education is in a very advanced state. The B. Public Library, the largest in the world for free circulation, was instituted in 1852, and contains over 600,000 bound volumes and 200,000 pamphlets. The Athenæum has a library of 100,000 vols., a picture gallery, and a public hall for lectures. The school for the instruction of the blind, founded in 1833, is said to be extremely well managed. The American Academy of Arts and Science, the Historical and Natural History Societies, are among its learned a ociations; it has also a Humane Society, orphan asylums, and numerous other char it a pie institutions. A host of excellent daily newspapers and other periodical journals are published here. The municipal govt. is vested in a mayor, a board of aldermen, and a common council, all of which officials are chosen annually by the popular vote. There is a police court for the trial of minor offences, and a superior court, which holds criminal and civil se ions.The commerce of B. is especially large in wool, shoes, and leather, for which it is the principal mart in the U. S., while most of the manufactories of New England make it their busine and financial centre. Nine lines of steamships connect it with Europe, and it has several important coastwise lines. B. is connected with the interior of the U. S. and Canada, by railways and river navigation; and has a most extensive trade both with foreign countries and with all the other States of the Union. There are more than 60 national banks, with cash capital and surplus of $75,000,000, and a clearing-house busine of about $5,000,000,000 annually. The valuation of taxable property has grown from about $15,000,000 in 1800 to considerably over $100,000,000 in 1897. In 1890, according to the U.S. census reports, B. had 7,915 manufacturing establishments, with a capital of $116,644,490, and 90,198 persons employed. The wages paid aggregated $54,636,695, and the value of products $208,104,683. Since that date there has been a steady and considerable Fig . 398.-BOSTON SUBWAY-ONE OF THE STATIONS. conjectured that he came into the country in 1622-1623. The town records begin about 1634. The first Grand Jury of the country met at B. , Sept. 1, 1635; and in 1651 the place is described by an eye-witne as being very flourishing. A list of all the streets, lanes, and alleys was made in 1708, and they were found to be 110 in number. At the first news of the intention of the English goverment to apply its revenue system comprehensively to the colonies, B. a umed that determined stand in behalf of liberty and law which gave it so imposing a part in the birth of the nation. Accounts of the important events of which it was the scene during the ten years that preceded the battle of Lexington, will be given under MASSACHUSETTS. During the Revolution B. maintained the reputation it had acquired in the earlier stages of the contest, and its people energetically supported the policy that ended in the adoption of the Federal constitution. In 1822 B. was made a city. The first ve el belonging to B. , of American build, was the Fig . 399. SECTION OF THE BOSTON bark Ble ing of the Bay, launched at Mystic, July 4, 1631. The first ship built at B. was the Trial , in 1644, which subsequently made a voyage to Spain. June, 1869, a great National Jubilee was held in this city to celebrate the restoration of peace throughout the Union. This took the form of a musical festival on the largest scale, comprising a grand orchestra of 1,094 instruments, in conjunction with a chorus of 10,000 voices. This was repeated in 1872.-The fire of November 9, 1872, destroyed 776 buildings, mostly stores and warehouses, the a e ed value of which was $13,500,000, while the total value of property destroyed was estimated at $60,000,000, covering an area of 65 acres. It has now been entirely rebuilt with most substantial structures. The cost of construction was from $122 (two tracks) to $182 (4 tracks) per Linear foot. The pop . was 18,038 in 1790; 33,250 in 1810; 61,392 in 1830; 136,884 in 1850; 200,000 in 1860; 250,526 in 1870 (including Dor chester and Roxbury). In 1874, by the annexation of Charles town, Brighton, and West Roxbury, the pop . was increased to 292,499. Pop . in 1890, 448,477; in 1897, estimated at about 540,000.