Mixed retting

—This may be fairly regarded as the preferable plan, the retting being begun in the water, and finished in the air. The flax should be taken out of the steep whenever the acetous fermentation is complete, before the putrid begins, and exposed, for 2 or 3 weeks, on the gra . II. The breaking is performed by an instrument called a brake. In order to give the wood or boon such a degree of brittlene as to make it part readily from the harl, whereby the execution of this proce is rendered easy, the flax should be well dried in the sun, or what is more suitable to the late period of the year, in a stove. Such is often attached to the bakers’ ovens in Germany, and other flax-growing countries. The drying temperature should never exceed 120° F., for a higher heat makes it brittle, easy to tear, and apt to run into tow. Before subjecting the flax to the brake, the stems should be equalized and laid parallel by the hand, and the entangled portions should be straightened with a coarse heckle. The brake has one general construction, and consists of two principal parts, the frame or case, and the sword or beater. In the simplest brakes, the frame e , fig. 412. , is a piece of wood cleft lengthwise in the middle, supported by the legs a and c . The sword f , also of hard wood, is formed with an edge beneath, and turns round the centre of motion at q , when seized by the handle h , and moved up and down. As it descends, the sword enters the cleft of the frame, and breaks the flax stalks laid transversely upon it, scattering the boon in fragments. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0484b.png:Flax brake But those hand brakes are more convenient which are provided with a double cleft, or triple row of oblong teeth; with a double sword. This construction will be understood by inspecting figs. 412 , 413 , 414. Fig. 412. is the section of that side at which the operative sits; fig. 413. is a section in the line A , B , of fig. 412; and fig. 414. , the ground plan. The whole machine is made of hard wood, commonly red beech. Two planks, a and c , form the legs of the implement. a is mortised in a heavy block, to give the brake a solid bearing; two stretchers d , bind a and c , firmly together. The frame e consists of three thin boards, which are placed edgewise, and have their ends secured in a and c . The sword f is a piece of wood, so chamfered from i to k , that it appears forklike, and embraces the middle piece of the frame; its centre of motion is the wooden pin q ; in front is the handle h , which the operative seizes with the right hand. Both the lathes of the frame, and those of the sword are sharpened, from l to the front end, as is best shown in fig. 413. ; but the edges must not be too sharp, for fear of injuring the flax; and, for the same reason, the sword should not sink too far between the lathes of the frame. Such hand-brakes are laborious in use, and often tear the harl into tow. The operative, usually a female, in working the brake, seizes with her left hand a bundle of flax, lays it transversely acro the frame, and strikes it smartly with repeated blows of the sword, pushing forwards continually new portions of the flax into the machine. She begins with the roots, turns next round the tips, then goes on through the length of the stalks. Flax is frequently exposed twice to the brake, with a stove drying between the two applications. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0485.png:Flax brake Fig. 415, 416, 417 enlarged (127 kB) The brake machines afford a far preferable means of cleaning flax than the above hand tools. The e ential part of such a machine, consists in several deeply fluted rollers of wood or iron, whose teeth work into each other, and while they stretch out the flaxen stalks betwixt them, they break the wood or boon, without doing that violence to the harl which hand mechanisms are apt to do. The following may be regarded as one of the best constructions hitherto contrived for breaking flax. Fig. 415. is a view of the right side of this machine. Fig. 416. , the view from behind, where the broken flax i ues from between the rollers. The frame is formed by the two side pillars or walls a , a , which are mortised into the bottom b , b ; and are firmly fixed to it by braces. Two transverse rods d , d , secure the base, two others d′ d′ ′ , the sides. In each of these a lateral arm e , is mortised in an oblique direction; a cro bar f , unites both arms. Fig. 417. shows the inside of the left side of the frame, with the subsidiary parts. The three rollers g , i , k , may be made of red beech, with iron gudgeons, and fluted in their length, each of the flutes being 5 ⁄ 12 of an inch broad, and 4 ⁄ 12 ths deep. The large roller g , bears upon the right side, a handle h , which on being turned, sets the whole train in motion. The side partitions a , a , are furnished with bra es in whose round holes l , g , fig. 417. , the gudgeons g work. For the extremities of the two smaller rollers, there are at a and e , slots in bra es, as may be seen in fig. 415. Within the partition a , there are movable bra es l , for the pivots of i and k , shewn in fig. 417. Each bra slides in a groove, between two ledges. A strong cord made fast at m to the partition a , runs over the bra of i , next over that of k , then descends perpendicularly, and pa es over the cro bar n , fig. 415. and 416. This construction being repeated at both ends of the rollers, the rod n , binds both cords. Against the cro bar d′ of the frame, a lever o is sustained, which lies upon the rod n , and carries a weight p . The farther or nearer this weight hangs towards the end of the lever, it stretches the cord more or le , and pre es by means of the bra es l , the rollers i , k , towards the main roller g . A table q , serves for spreading out the flax to be broken, and a second one r , for the reception of the stalks at their i uing from between the rollers. Both tables hang by means of iron hooks to rings of the frame s , t , fig. 415. and 417. , and are supported by the movable legs u , u , u , fig. 415. and 416. In using the machine the operative lays an evenly spread handful of flax upon the table q , introduces their root ends with his left hand between the rollers g and i , and turns round the handle h , with the right. The stems are first broken betwixt g and i , then between g and k , and come out upon the table r . The handle is moved alternately forwards and backwards, in order that the flax may be rolled alternately in the same directions, and be more perfectly broken. The boon falls down in very small pieces, and the harl remains expanded in parallel bands. This should be drawn over the points of a heckle, then laid for a couple of days in a cellar to absorb some moisture, and afterwards worked once more through the machine, whereby the flax acquires a peculiar softne . The advantages of this brake machine are chiefly the following :— It takes up little room, and from its simplicity is easily and cheaply constructed; it requires no more power to work, than the ordinary hand-brake; it tears none of the filaments, and grinds nothing except the boon, in consequence of the flutings of the rollers going much le deep into each other, than the sword of the hand-brake; it prevents all entanglements of the flax, whence in the subsequent heckling the quantity of short fibres or tow is diminished; and it accomplishes the cleaning of even the shortest flax, which cannot be well done by hand machines. The comminution of the boon of the stems, which is the object of the breaking proce , can however be performed by threshing or beating, although in this way the separation of the woody matter from the textile fibres is much le completely effected. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0486.png:Bott-hammer It is the practice in Great Britain, instead of breaking, to employ a water-driven wooden mallet, between which and a smooth stone the flax is laid. In that part of Belgium where the preparation of flax has been studied, the brake is not used, but beating by means of the Bott-hammer , to the great improvement, it is said, of the flax. The Bott-hammer , fig. 418. , is a wooden block, having on its under face, channels or flutings, 5 or 6 lines deep, and it is fixed to a long bent helve or handle. In using it, a bundle of the dried flax stalks is spread evenly upon the floor, then powerfully beaten with the hammer, first at the roots, next at the points, and lastly in the middle. When the upper surface has been well beat in this way, it is turned over, that the under surface may get its turn. The flax is then removed, and well shaken to free it from the boon. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0484a.png:Ribbe-knife By the brake or the hammer the whole wood is never separated from the textile fibres, but a certain quantity of chaffy stuff adheres to them, which is removed by another operation. This consists either in rubbing or shaking. The rubbing is much practised in Westphalia, and the neighbouring districts. In this proce , the operative lays the rubbing apron on a piece of dre ed leather, one foot square, upon her knee; then seizes a bundle of flax in the middle with her left hand, and scrapes it strongly with the Ribbe-knife held in her right, fig. 419. This tool, which consists of a wooden handle s , and a thin iron blade r , with a blunt and somewhat bent edge, acts admirably in cleaning and also in parting the filaments, without causing needle waste in flax previously well broken. The winnowing, which has the very same object as the rubbing, is, however, much more generally adopted than the latter. Two distinct pieces of apparatus belong to it, namely, the swing-stock and the swing-knife . The first consists of an upright board with a groove in its side, into which a handful of flax is so placed that it hangs down over half the surface of the board. While the left hand holds the flax fast above, the right carries the swing-knife, a sabre-shaped piece of wood from 1 1 ⁄ 2 to 2 feet long, planed to an edge on the convex side, and provided with a handle. With this knife the flax is struck parallel to the board, with perpendicular blows, so as to scrape off its woody asperities. The breadth of the swing-knife is an important circumstance; when too narrow it easily causes the flax to twist round it, and thereby tears away a portion of the fibres. When 8 or 10 inches broad, it is found to act best. Knives made of iron will not answer, for they injure the filaments. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0487a.png:Swing-stock Figs. 420 , 421. show the best construction of the swing-stock. The board a has for its base a heavy block of wood b , upon which two upright pins e e , are fixed. The band f , which is stretched between the pins, serves to guide the swing-knife in its movements, and prevent the operative from wounding his feet. The under edge of the groove c , upon which the flax comes to be laid, is cut obliquely and rounded off (see d in fig. 420. ); thus we perceive that the swing-knife can never strike against that edge, so as to injure the flax. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0487b.png:Belgian alternative for swing-knife Fig. 422. exhibits the form of a very convenient implement which is employed in Belgium instead of the swing-knife. It is a sort of wooden hatchet, which is not above two lines thick, and at the edge g h is reduced to the thickne of the back of a knife. The fly k gives force to the blow, and preserves the tool in an upright position. The short flat-pre ed helve i is glued to that side of the leaf which in working is turned from the swing-stock; and is, moreover, fastened with a wooden pin. The rubbing and swinging throw off the coarsest sort of tow, by separating and shaking out the shortest fibres and those that happen to get torn. That tow is used for the inferior qualities of sacking, being mixed with many woody fibres. We may in general estimate that 100 pounds of the stalks of retted flax, taken in the dry state, afford from 45 to 48 pounds of broken flax, of which, in the swinging or scutching, about 24 pounds of flax, with 9 or 10 pounds of scutch tow are obtained. The rest is boon-waste. The breaking of 100 pounds of stalks requires, in the ordinary routine of a double proce by hand, about 20 hours; and with the above described machine, from 17 to 18 hours. To scutch 100 pounds of broken flax clean, 130 hours of labour are required by the German swinging method. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0487c.png:Bundy Mr. Bundy obtained a patent in 1819, for certain machinery for breaking and preparing flax, which merits description here. Fig. 423. A A A A , is the frame made either of wood or metal, which supports the two conical rollers B and C . These revolve independently of each other in proper bra bearings. A third conical roller D is similarly supported under the top piece E of the machine. All these rollers are frusta of cones, made of cast iron. Whatever form of tooth be adopted, they must be so shaped and disposed with regard to each other as to have considerable play between them, in order to admit the quantity of flax stem which is intended to be broken and prepared. The upper piece E of the machine which carries the upper conical roller D , is fixed or attached to the main frame A A A A by strong hinges or any other moveable joint at G , and rods of iron or other sufficiently strong material; H H is attached at its upper end by a joint to the top piece E , through a hole near I , and is fixed at its lower end by another joint K to the treadle or lever K L , which turns upon the joint or hinges M . A spring or weight (but the former is preferable for many reasons) is applied to the machine in such manner, that its action will always keep the upper piece E , and consequently the upper roller D , in an elevated or raised position above the rollers B and C , when the machine is not in action; and of course the end L of the treadle will also be raised, which admits of the flax to be worked being introduced between the rollers, viz. over the two lower rollers B , C , and under the upper roller D ; such a spring may be applied in a variety of ways, as between the top piece E , and the top or platform of the machine at N ; or it may be a strong spiral wire spring, having its upper end fastened to the platform while its lower extremity is fixed to the rod H H , round which it coils as shown at O , or it may be placed under the end L of the treadle; but in every case its strength must be no more than will be just sufficient to raise the upper roller D about two inches from the lower rollers, otherwise it will occasion unnece ary fatigue to the person working the machine. The manner of using it is as follows: the upper and lower rollers being separated as aforesaid, a small handful of dried flax or hemp stems is to be introduced between them, and held extended by the two hands, while the rollers are brought together by the pre ure of the foot upon the treadle L . This pre ure being continued, the flax or hemp is to be drawn backwards and forwards by the hands between the rollers, in a direction at right angles to their axes, and eventually withdrawn by pulling with one hand only. The foot is now to be removed until the flax or hemp is again replaced, and each end is this way to be drawn several times through the machine, until such ends are respectively finished. By a succe ion of these operations, using the pre ure of the foot upon L , each time that the flax or hemp is introduced between the rollers, and regulating such pre ure according to the progre of the work, the flax or hemp will soon be sufficiently worked, and the fibre brought into a clean and divided state fit for bleaching; or if it be required to spin it in the yellow state, it may be made sufficiently fine by a longer continuation of the same proce , particularly if worked between the smaller ends of the rollers. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo0487d.png:Rollers Indeed, the operation may be commenced and continued for some time, with the larger part of the rollers, and finished with their smaller ends; and, in this point of view, the invention of conical rollers will be found both convenient and useful; for as the flutes, grooves, or teeth, vary in their distance from each other at all points between the large and small ends, so it becomes almost impo ible for the workman to draw the flax or hemp through such rollers in the same track; and thus the breaking of the boon must be much more irregular, and the fibre will be much more effectually cleansed than it can be by the flutes, grooves, or teeth of cylinders, or other such contrivances formerly employed; because they would probably fall frequently upon the same points of the fibres. If it is intended that the flax shall be bleached before it is spun, then the second part of Mr. Bundy’s invention may be had recourse to, which consists in moving certain trays or cradles in the water, or other fluid used for bleaching the flax or hemp, in the manner following, viz.: The flax or hemp, after having been broken and worked in the machine, should be divided into small quantities of about one ounce each, and these should be tied loosely in the middle with a string, and in this state laid in the trays or cradles, and then be soaked in cold soft water for a day or two, when each parcel should be worked separately, while wet, through a machine, precisely similar to that already described, except only that the rollers should be cylindrical, and made entirely of wood with metal axles, and the teeth, which will be parallel, should be similar in form to those shown in section at Q , fig. 423*. Such operation will loosen the gluten and colouring matter, for the rinsing and wringing which must follow. The flax must then be again disposed in a flat and smooth manner, in such trays or cradles, and once more set to soak in sufficient soft water to cover it, in which a small quantity of soap, in the proportion of about seven pounds of soap to each hundred weight of flax, has been previously di olved, and in this state it should remain for two or three days longer, and then be finally worked through the machine, rinsed with clear water, and wrung; which will render it sufficiently white for most purposes.