AMBER

( Succin , Fr.; Bernstein , Germ.) A mineral solid, of a yellow colour of various shades, which burns quite away with flame, and consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in nearly the same proportions, and the same state of combination, as vegetable resin. Its specific gravity varies, by my trials, from 1·080 to 1·085. It becomes negatively and powerfully electrical by friction. When applied to a lighted candle it takes fire, swells considerably, and exhales a white smoke of a pungent odour; but does not run into drops. Copal, which resembles it in several respects, differs in being softer, and in melting into drops at the flame; and mellite, or honey-stone, which is a mineral of a similar colour, becomes white when laid on a red-hot coal. The texture of amber is resino-vitreous, its fracture conchoidal, and lustre gla y. It is perfectly homogeneous; sufficiently hard to scratch gypsum, and to take a fine polish. It is, however, scratched by calcareous spar. When amber is distilled in a retort, crystalline needles of succinic acid sublime into the dome, and oil of amber drops from the beak into the receiver. Fo il resins, such as that of High gate, found in the London clay formation, do not afford succinic acid by heat; nor does copal. Amber is occasionally found of a whitish and brownish colour. The most interesting fact relative to this vegeto-mineral is its geological position, which is very characteristic and well determined. It is found almost uniformly in separate nodules, di eminated in the sand, clay, or fragments of lignite of the plastic clay, and lignite formation, situated between the calcaire gro ier (crag limestone) of the tertiary strata above, and the white chalk below. The size of these nodules varies from a nut to a man’s head; but this magnitude is very rare in true amber. It does not occur either in continuous beds, like the chalk flints, nor in veins; but it lies at one time in the earthy or friable strata, which accompany or include the lignites; at another, entangled in the lignites themselves; and is a ociated with the minerals which constitute this formation, principally the pyrites, the most abundant of all. The pieces of amber found in the sands, and other formations evidently alluvial, those met with on the sea-coasts of certain countries, and especially Pomerania, come undoubtedly from the above geological formation; for the organic matters found still adhering to the amber leave no doubt as to its primitive place. Amber does not, therefore, belong to any postdiluvian or modern soil, since its native bed is covered by three or four series of strata, often of considerable thickne , and well characterised; proceeding upwards from the plastic clay which includes the amber: these are, the crag limestone, the bone gypsum, with its marls, the marly limestone, the upper marl sandstone, which covers it, and, lastly, the freshwater or lacustrine formation, often so thick, and composed of calcareous and siliceous rocks. The amber bed is not, however, always covered with all these strata; and it is even rare to see a great ma of one of them above the ground which contains it; because, were it buried under such strata, it would be difficult to meet with such circumstances as would lay it spontaneously open to the day. But by comparing observations made in different places, relatively to the patches of these formations, which cover the amber deposits, we find that no other mineral formations have been ever seen among them except those above detailed, and thus learn that its geological locality is completely determined. The proper yellow amber, therefore, or the Boru ic, from the country where it has been most abundantly found, belongs to the plastic clay formation, intermediate, in England, between the chalk and the London clay. It is sometimes interposed in thin plates between the layers of the lignites, but more towards the bark of the fibrous lignites, which retain the form of the wood, than towards the middle of the trunk of the tree; a position analogous to that of the resinous matters in our existing ligneous vegetables. The fibrous lignites which thus contain amber belong to the dicotyledinous woods. Hence that substance seems to have been formed during the life of the vegetable upon which it is now encrusted. It must be remembered that the grounds containing the amber are often replete with the sulphates of iron, alumina, and lime, or at least with the pyritous elements of these salts. Some specimens of amber have a surface figured with irregular meshes, indicating a sort of shrinkage from consolidation, and consequently a matter that was at one time fluid, viscid, or merely soft. From optical examination, Dr. Brewster has concluded amber to be of vegetable origin. The different bodies included in the amber, distinguishable from its transparence, demonstrate, indeed, in the most convincing manner, its primitive state of liquidity or softne . These bodies have long exercised the skill of naturalists. They are generally insects, or remains of insects, and sometimes leaves, stalks, or other portions of vegetables. Certain families of insects occur more abundantly than others. Thus the hymenoptera , or insects with four naked membranaceous wings, as the bee and wasp, and the diptera , or insects with two wings, as gnats, flies, gadflies, .; then come the spider tribe; some coleoptera (insects with crustaceous shells or elytra, which shut together, and form a longitudinal suture down the back,) or beetles, principally those which live on trees; such as the elate rides , or leapers, and the chrysomelid a . The lepidoptera, or insects with four membranaceous wings, and pterigostea covered with mail-like scales, are very rare in amber. We perceive from this enumeration, which results from the labours of Germar, Schweiger, ., that the insects enveloped in this resinous matter are in general such as sit on the trunks of trees, or live in the fi ures of their bark. Hitherto, it has not been found po ible to refer them to any living species; but it has been observed in general that they resemble more the insects of hot climates than those of the temperate zones. The districts where amber occurs in a condition fit for mining operations are not numerous; but those in which it is met with in small scattered bits are very abundant. Its principal exploitation is in Eastern Pru ia, on the coasts of the Baltic sea, from Memel to Dantzick, particularly in the neighbourhood of Konigsberg, along the shore which runs north and south from Gro dirschheim to Pillau, and in several other places near Dantzick. It is collected upon this coast in several ways; 1. In the beds of small streams which run near the villages, and in rounded fragments without bark, or in the sand-banks of rivers, in pieces thrown back by the sea, and rounded by the waves. 2. If the pieces thrown up by the waters are not numerous, the fishers, clothed in a leather dre , wade into the sea up to the neck, seek to discover the amber by looking along its surface, and seize it with bag nets, hung at the end of very long poles. They conclude that a great deal of amber has been detached from the cliffs by the sea, when many pieces of lignite (wood coal) are seen afloat. This mode of collecting amber is not free from danger, and the fishers, therefore, advance in troops, to lend each other aid in case of accident; but their succe , even thus, is most precarious. 3. The third method of searching for amber is a real mining operation: it consists in digging pits upon the borders of the sandy downs, sometimes to a depth of more than 130 feet. 4. The last mode is by exploring the precipitous sea cliffs in boats, and detaching ma es of loose soil from them with long poles terminating in iron hooks; a very hazardous employment. They search the cliffs with great care at the level, where the amber nodules commonly lie, and loosen the seams with their hooks; in which busine the boats are sometimes broken against the precipices, or sunk by an avalanche of rubbish. Amber occurs in Sicily, di eminated in beds of clay and marl, which lie below the crag limestone. It is accompanied with bitumen; and, though a scanty deposit, it is mined for sale. The pieces are coated with a kind of whitish bark, present a variety of colours, and include many insects. Amber is found in a great many places in the sandy districts of Poland, at a very great distance from the sea, where it is mixed with cones of the pine. In Saxony it is met with in the neighbourhood of Pretsch and Wittemberg, in a bituminous clay mingled with lignite. At the embouchure of the Jeni ey, in Siberia, it occurs likewise along with lignite; as also in Green land. Fine amber is considerably valued for making ornamental objects, and the coarser kinds for certain uses in chemistry, medicine, and the arts. The oriental nations prize more highly than the people of Europe trinkets made of amber; and hence the chief commerce of the Pome rani an article is with Turkey. The Pru ian government is said to draw an annual revenue of 17,000 dollars from amber. A good piece of a pound weight fetches 50 dollars. A ma weighing 13 pounds was picked up not long since in Pru ia, for which 5000 dollars were offered, and which would bring, in the opinion of the Armenian merchants, from 30,000 to 40,000 dollars at Constantinople. At one time it was customary to bake the opaque pieces of amber in sand, at a gentle heat, for several hours, in order to make it transparent, or to digest it in hot rapeseed oil, with the same view; but how far these proce es were advantageous does not appear. When amber is to be worked into trinkets, it is first split on a leaden plate at a lathe (see Gems , Cutting of ), and then smoothed into shape on a Swedish whetstone. It is polished on the lathe with chalk and water, or vegetable oil, and finished by friction with flannel. In these proce es the amber is apt to become highly electrical, very hot, and even to fly into fragments. Hence, the artists work the pieces time about, so as to keep each of them cool, and feebly excited. The men are often seized with nervous tremors in their wrists and arms from the electricity. Pieces of amber may be neatly joined by smearing their edges with linseed oil, and pre ing them strongly together, while they are held over a charcoal fire. Solid specimens of amber, reported to have been altogether fused by a particular application of heat, are now shown in the royal cabinet of Dresden. A strong and durable varnish is made by di olving amber in drying linseed oil. For this purpose, however, the amber must be previously heated in an iron pot, over a clear red fire, till it soften and be semi-liquefied. The oil, previously heated, is to be now poured in, with much stirring, in the proportion of 10 ounces to the pound of amber; and after the incorporation is complete, and the liquid somewhat cooled, a pound of oil of turpentine must be added. Some persons prescribe 2 ounces of melted shellac, though by this means they are apt to deepen the colour, already rendered too dark by the roasting. The fine black varnish of the coach makers is said to be prepared by melting 16 ounces of amber in an iron pot, adding to it half a pint of drying linseed oil, boiling hot, of powdered resin and asphaltum 3 ounces each: when the materials are well united, by stirring over the fire, they are to be removed, and, after cooling for some time, a pint of warm oil of turpentine is to be introduced. The oil of amber enters into the composition of the old perfume called eau de luce ; and is convertible, by the action of a small quantity of strong nitric acid, into a viscid ma like shoemakers’ rosin, which has a strong odour of musk, and, under the name of artificial musk, has been prescribed, in alcoholic solution, as a remedy against hooping cough, and other spasmodic diseases. Acid of amber ( succinic acid ) is a delicate reagent, in chemistry, for separating red oxide of iron from compound metallic solutions.