IDOLS

Arabic was̤an ( وثن‎ ), pl. aus̤ān , also ṣan am ( صنم‎ ), pl. aṣnām , both words being used in the Qurʾān. Ten of the idols of ancient Arabia are mentioned by name in the Qurʾān, viz.:— Sūrah iv. 52 : “Hast thou not observed those to whom a part of the Scriptures hath been given? They believe in al-Jibt and at̤-T̤āg͟hūt , and say of the infidels, ‘These are guided in a better path than those who hold the faith.’ ” Sūrah liii. 19 : “Have ye considered al-Lāt , al-ʿUzza , and Manāt the third?” Sūrah lxxi. 21 : “They have plotted a great plot and said, “Ye shall surely not leave your gods: ye shall surely neither leave Wadd , nor Suwāʿ , nor Yag͟hūs̤ , nor Yaʿūq , nor Nasr , and they led astray many.” Al-Jibt and at̤-T̤āg͟hūt (the latter also mentioned in Sūrah ii. 257, 259 ) were, according to Jalālu ʾd-dīn, two idols of the Quraish whom certain renegade Jews honoured in order to please the Quraish. Al-Lāt was the chief idol of the Banū S̤aqīf at at̤-T̤āʾif. The name appears to be the feminine of Allāh , God. Al-ʿUzza has been identified with Venus, but it was worshipped under the form of an acacia tree, and was the deity of the Banū G͟hat̤afān. Manāt was a large sacrificial stone worshipped by the Banū K͟huzāʿah and Banū Huẕail. The five idols, Wadd , Suwāʿ , Yag͟hūs̤ , Yāʿūq , and Nasr , the commentators say, were originally five persons of eminence in the time of Adam, who after their deaths were worshipped in the form of idols. Wadd was worshipped by the Banū Kalb in the form of a man, and is said to have represented heaven. Suwāʿ was a female deity of the Banū Ḥamdān. Yag͟hūs̤ was a deity of the Banū Maẕḥij and in the form of a lion. Yaʿūq was an idol of the Banū Murād in the shape of a horse. Nasr was, as its name implies, an image of an eagle, and worshipped by Ḥimyar. It is said (according to Burkhardt, p. 164) that at the time of Muḥammad’s suppre ion of idol worship in the Makkan temple, there were not fewer than 360 idols in existence. The chief of the minor deities was Hubal , an image of a man, and said to have been originally brought from Syria. Other well-known idols were Isāf , an idol on Mount aṣ-Ṣāfā, and Nāʾilah , an image on Mount al-Marwah, as part of the rites of the pilgrimage, the Prophet not being able to divert entirely the regard of the people for them. Habhah was a large sacred stone on which camels were sacrificed, and the Ḥajaru ʾl-Aswad , or Black Stone, was an object, as it still is, of idolatrous worship. In the Kaʿbah there were also images representing Abraham and Ishmael, each with divining arrows in his hand. The statement, made by some writers, that the image or picture of Jesus and Mary had a place in the Kaʿbah, seems to be without any authority. Although Hero dot us does not refer to the Kaʿbah, yet he mentions as one of the chief divinities of Arabia Alilat , which is strong evidence of the existence of an idol called al-Lāt at that time as an object of worship. ( Herod . iii. 8.) [ IDOLATRY .] IDRĪS ( ادريس‎ ). A prophet mentioned twice in the Qurʾān, about whose identity there is some discu ion. Sūrah xix. 57 : “Commemorate Idrīs in the Book; verily he was a man of truth and a Prophet, and we raised him to a lofty place.” Sūrah xxi. 85 : “And Ishmael, and Idrīs, and Ẕū ʾl-kifl—all steadfast in patience.” Al-Baiẓāwī says Idrīs was of the posterity of Shīs̤ (Seth), and a forefather of Noah, and his name was Uḥnūk͟h (Enoch, Heb. ‏חֲנוֹךְ‎ , Consecrated ). He was called Idrīs from dars , “to instruct,” from his knowledge of divine mysteries, and thirty portions of God’s sacred scriptures were revealed to him. He was the first person who learned to write, and he was the inventor of the science of astronomy and arithmetic. Ḥusain says, “In the Jāmiʿu ʾl-Uṣūl , it is written that Idrīs was born one hundred years after the death of Adam.” The Jalālān say the meaning of the words in the Qurʾān, “ we raised him to a lofty place ,” is that he liveth either in the fourth heaven, or in the sixth or seventh heaven, or that he was raised up from the dead and taken to Paradise. The Kāmālān say, “In the book called the Rauẓatu ʾl-Aḥbāb , Ibn Jarīr relates that Idrīs was the special friend of one of the angels of heaven, and that this angel took him up into the heavens, and when they arrived in the fourth heaven they met the Angel of Death. The angel asked the Angel of Death how many years there were remaining of the life of Idrīs; and the Angel of Death said, ‘Where is Idrīs, for I have received orders to bring death to him?’ Idrīs then remained in the fourth heaven, and he died in the wings of his angel friend who had taken him from earth.” Some of the Commentators think Idrīs and Elijah (Ilyās) are the same persons. But the accounts given seem to identify him with Enoch. ʿĪDU ʾL-AẒḤĀ ( عيد الاضحى‎ ). Vulg. ʿĪd-i-Ẓuḥā , “The feast of sacrifice.” Called also Yaumu ʾn-Naḥr ; Qurbān-ʿĪd ; Baqarah-ʿĪd ( i.e . the cow festival); and in Turkey and Egypt ʿĪdu Bairām . It is also called the ʿĪdu ʾl-kabīr , the great festival, as distinguished from the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r , which is called the minor festival, or al-ʿĪdu ʾṣ-ṣag͟hīr . It is celebrated on the tenth day of Ẕū ʾl-Ḥijjah, and is part of the rites of the Makkan pilgrimage, although it is observed as well in all parts of Islām both as a day of sacrifice and as a great festival. It is founded on an injunction in the Qurʾān, Sūrah xxii. 33–38 . “This do . And they who respect the symbols of God, perform an action which proceed eth from piety of heart. “Ye may obtain advantages from the cattle to the set time for slaying them ; then, the place for sacrificing them is at the ancient House. “And to every people have we appointed symbols, that they may commemorate the name of God over the brute beasts which He hath provided for them. And your God is the one God. To Him, therefore, surrender yourselves: and bear thou good tidings to those who humble themselves,— “Whose hearts, when mention is made of God, thrill with awe; and to those who remain steadfast under all that befalleth them, and observe prayer, and give alms of that with which we have supplied them. “And the camels have we appointed you for the sacrifice to God: much good have ye in them. Make mention, therefore, of the name of God over them when ye slay them , as they stand in a row; and when they are fallen over on their sides, eat of them, and feed him who is content and asketh not , and him who asketh. Thus have We subjected them to you, to the intent ye should be thankful. “By no means can their flesh reach unto God, neither their blood; but piety on your part reacheth Him. Thus hath He subjected them to you, that ye might magnify God for His guidance: moreover, announce glad tidings to those who do good deeds.” The institution of the sacrifice was as follows:—A few months after the Hijrah, or flight from Makkah, Muḥammad, dwelling in al-Madīnah, observed that the Jews kept, on the tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. A tradition records that the Prophet asked them why they kept this fast. He was informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the children of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. “We have a greater right in Moses than they,” said Muḥammad, so he fasted with the Jews and commanded his followers to fast also. This was at the period of his mi ion when Muḥammad was friendly with the Jews of al-Madīnah, who occasionally came to hear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Then came the change of the Qiblah from Jerusalem to Makkah, for the Jews were not so ready to change their creed as Muḥammad had at first hoped. In the second year of the Hijrah, Muḥammad and his followers did not participate in the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the ʿĪdu ʾl-Aẓḥā. The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimage to Makkah at this season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrifice formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. That portion—the sacrifice of animals—Muḥammad adopted in the feast which now, at al-Madīnah, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was well calculated to attract the attention of the Makkans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs. Muḥammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Makkah, for as yet there was a hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but on the tenth day of the month Ẕū ʾl-Ḥijjah, at the very time when the Arabs at Makkah were engaged in sacrificing victims, Muḥammad went forth from his house at al-Madīnah, and a embling his followers instituted the ʿĪdu ʾl-Aẓḥā. Two young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: “O Lord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witne to Thy unity and to my mi ion. O Lord! this is for Muḥammad and for the family of Muḥammad.” There is nothing in the Qurʾān to connect this sacrifice with the history of Ishmael, but it is generally held by Muḥammadans to have been instituted in commemoration of Abraham’s willingne to offer up his son as a sacrifice. And Muḥammadan writers generally maintain that the son was Ishmael and not Isaac, and that the scene took place on Mount Mina near Makkah, and not in the land of Moriah, as is stated in Genesis. The following is the account given by Muḥammadan writers:—“When Ibrahīm (the peace of God be upon him) founded Makkah, the Lord desired him to prepare a feast for Him. Upon Ibrahīm’s (the friend of God) requesting to know what He would have on the occasion, the Lord replied, ‘Offer up thy son Ismāʿīl.’ Agreeably to God’s command he took Ismāʿīl to the Kaʿbah to sacrifice him, and having laid him down, he made several ineffectual strokes on his throat with a knife, on which Ismāʿīl observed, ‘Your eyes being uncovered, it is through pity and compa ion for me you allow the knife to mi : it would be better if you blindfolded yourself with the end of your turban and then sacrificed me.’ Ibrahīm acted upon his son’s suggestion and having repeated the words ‘ Bi-smi ʾllāhi, allāhu akbar ’ ( i.e . ‘In the name of God! God is great!’), he drew the knife acro his son’s neck. In the meanwhile, however, Gabriel had substituted a broad-tailed sheep for the youth Ismāʿīl, and Ibrahīm unfolding his eyes observed, to his surprise, the sheep slain, and his son standing behind him.” (See Qiṣaṣu ʾl-Ambiyāʾ .) It is a notable fact that whilst Muḥammad profe ed to abrogate the Jewish ritual, and also ignored entirely the doctrine of the Atonement as taught in the New Testament, denying even the very fact of our Saviour’s crucifixion, he made the “ day of sacrifice ” the great central festival of his religion. There is a very remarkable Ḥadīs̤, related by ʿĀyishah, who states that Muḥammad said, “Man hath not done anything on the ʿĪdu ʾl-Aẓḥā more pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will come, on the day of resurrection, with its horns, its hair, and its hoofs, and will make the scale of his (good) actions heavy. Verily its blood reacheth the acceptance of God, before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in it.” ( Mishkāt , book iv. ch. xlii. sec. 2.) Muḥammad has thus become a witne to the doctrine of the Christian faith that “without shedding of blood, there is no remi ion.” The animal sacrificed must be without blemish, and of full age; but it may be either a goat, a sheep, a cow, or a camel. The religious part of the festival is observed as follows:—The people a emble in the morning for prayer, in the ʿĪdgāh, or place erected outside the city for these special festival prayers. The whole congregation then standing in the usual order, the Imām takes his place in front of them and leads them in two rakʿahs of prayer. After prayers the Imām ascends the mimbar or pulpit and delivers a K͟hut̤bah, or oration, on the subject of the festival. We are indebted to Mr. Sell for the following specimen of the K͟hut̤bah:— “In the name of God, the Compa ionate, the Merciful. “God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him. Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen! I testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner. This testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the glorious feast day. Muḥammad is His servant who delivered His me age. On Muḥammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of God rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimīn, may the mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is to fear God and to be kind. God has said, ‘I will be with those who fear Me and are kind.’ “Know, O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in Paradise, especially on the day of resurrection will they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is no time for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to utter the praises of God. Read the Kalimah, the Takbīr and the Tamḥīd. This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read now the Takbīru ʾt-Tashrīq. God is great! God is great! There is no God but God! God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the morning of the ʿArafah, after every farẓ rakʿah , it is good for a person to repeat the Takbīru ʾt-Tashrīq. The woman before whom is a man as Imām, and the traveller whose Imām is a permanent resident, should also repeat this Takbīr . It should be said at each Namāz until the Ṣalātu ʾl-ʿAṣr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say that it should be recited every day till the afternoon of the thirteenth day, as these are the days of the Tashrīq. If the Imām forgets to recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O believers, that every free man who is a Ṣāḥib-i-Niṣāb should offer sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his household goods and slaves. It is wājib for everyone to offer sacrifice for himself, but it is not a wājib order that he should do it for his children. A goat, a ram, or a cow, should be offered in sacrifice for every seven persons. The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame, or very thin. “If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you acro the Ṣirāt̤. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the mercy and peace of God, ‘Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this was the Sunnah of Ibrahīm, on whom be peace.’ “In the Kitābu Zādi ʾt-Taqwa it is said that, on the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r and the ʿĪdu ʾl-Aẓḥā, four nafl rakʿahs should be said after the farẓ Namāz of the ʿĪd. In the first rakʿah after the Sūratu ʾl-Fātiḥah recite the Sūratu ʾl-Aʿla ( Sūrah lxxvii . ); in the second, the Sūratu ʾsh-Shams ( Sūrah xci .); in the third, the Sūratu ʾẓ-Ẓuḥa ( Sūrah xciii .); in the fourth, the Sūratu ʾl-Ik͟hlāṣ ( cxii .). “O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years which are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Sūrahs is equal, as an act of merit, to the reading of all the books God has sent by His prophets. “May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the Last Day. To all such there will be no fear in the Day of Resurrection; no sorrow in the examination at the Day of Judgment. The best of all books is the Qurʾān. O believers! May God give to us and to you a ble ing for ever, by the grace of the Noble Qurʾān. May its verses be our guide, and may its wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon all believers, male and female, the Muslimīn and the Muslimāt. O believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compa ionate, the Clement. O believers, the K͟hut̤bah is over. Let all desire that on Muḥammad Muṣt̤afa the mercy and peace of God may rest.” The K͟hut̤bah being ended, the people all return to their homes. The head of the family then takes a sheep, or a cow, or a goat, or camel, and turning its head towards Makkah says: “In the name of the great God. “Verily, my prayers, my sacrifice, my life, my death, belong to God, the Lord of the worlds. He has no partner: that is what I am bidden: for I am first of those who are Mūslim ( i.e . resigned).” And then he slays the animal. The flesh of the animal is then divided into three portions, one third being given to relations, one third to the poor, and the remaining third reserved for the family. Quite apart from its religious ceremonies, the festival is observed as a great time of rejoicing, and the holiday is kept for two or three days in a similar way to that of the minor festival or the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r. [ HAJJ , ISHMAEL , SACRIFICE .] ʿĪDU ʾL-FIT̤R ( عـيـد الـفـطر‎ ). Lit . “The Festival of the Breaking of the Fast.” It is called also ʿĪdu Ramaẓān , the ʿĪdu ʾṣ-Ṣadaqah (Feast of Alms), and the ʿĪdu ʾṣ-ṣag͟hīr (Minor Festival). It commences as soon as the month’s fast in Ramaẓān is over, and consequently on the first day of the month of Shawwāl. It is specially a feast of alms-giving. “Bring out your alms,” said Ibn ʿAbbās, “for the Prophet has ordained this as a divine institution, one Ṣāʿ of barley or dates, or a half Ṣāʿ of wheat: this is for every person, free or bond, man or woman, old or young, to purify thy fast ( i.e . the month’s fast just concluded) of any obscene language, and to give victuals to the poor.” ( Mishkāt , book vi. ch. iii.) On this festival the people, having previously distributed the alms which are called the Ṣadaqatu ʾl-Fit̤r , a emble in the vast a embly outside the city in the ʿĪdgāh , and, being led by the Imām, recite two rakʿahs of prayer. After prayers the Imām ascends the mimbar , or pulpit, and delivers the k͟hut̤bah , or oration. We are indebted to Mr. Sell for the following specimen of one of these sermons:— “In the name of God, the Compa ionate, the Merciful. “Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and kindne has granted them the right of entrance into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It is of His grace and favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: ‘I will give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent ble ings to those who fast. ’ God is great! God is great! Holy is He who certainly sent the Qurʾān to our Prophet in the month of Ramaẓān, and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r, that great ble ing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witne which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muḥammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muḥammad and his family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on you. He says that this Feast day is a ble ing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the ṣadaqah . O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wājib duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in Ramaẓān was to say the Tarāwīḥ prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit and meditate ( iʿtikāf ) and to read the Qurʾān. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramaẓān gain the mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God has declared that Ramaẓān is a noble month, for is not one of its nights, the Lailatu ʾl-Qadr, better than a you sand months? On that night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning breaks it is full of ble ing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is the Qurʾān, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is God who says in the Qurʾān: ‘This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and wrong.’ O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your God, and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast, so that no days be lost, and say: ‘God is great!’ and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God will ble you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurʾān. Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, the Clement.” The K͟hut̤bah being ended, the whole congregation raise their hands and offer a munājāt for the remi ion of sins, the recovery of the sick, increase of rain, abundance of corn, preservation from misfortune, and freedom from debt. The Imām then descends to the ground, and makes further supplication for the people, the congregation saying “ Amīn ” at the end of each supplication. At the close of the service the members of the congregation salute and embrace each other, and offer mutual congratulations, and then return to their homes, and spend the rest of the day in feasting and merriment. Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali, in her Observations on the Musalmans of India , says:— “The a emblies of the ladies on this festival are marked by all the amusements and indulgences they can po ibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state. Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and most splendid dre . The Zanānah rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to dependants, and remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy day of festival, when the good lady of the mansion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others.” Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians , vol. ii. p. 238, thus describes the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r, as kept in Egypt:— “Soon after sunrise on the first day, the people having all dre ed in new, or in their best clothes, the men a emble in the mosques, and perform the prayers of two rekʾahs, a Soonneh ordinance of the ʾeed; after which, the Khateeb delivers an exhortation. Friends, meeting in the mosque, or in the street, or in each other’s houses, congratulate and embrace and ki each other. They generally visit each other for this purpose. Some, even of the lower cla es, dre themselves entirely in a new suit of clothes, and almost everyone wears something new, if it be only a pair of shoes. The servant is presented with at least one new article of clothing by the master, and receives a few piasters from each of his master’s friends, if they visit the house; or even goes to those friends to congratulate them, and receives his present; if he have served a former master, he also visits him, and is in like manner rewarded for his trouble; and sometimes he brings a present of a dish of sweet cakes, and obtains, in return, money of twice the value, or more. On the days of this ʾeed, most of the people of Cairo eat salted fish, and thin, folded pancakes, and a kind of bun. Some families also prepare a dish consisting of stewed meat, with onions, and a quantity of treacle, vinegar, and coarse flour; and the master usually procures dried fruits, such as nuts, raisins, ., for his family. Most of the shops in the metropolis are closed, except those at which eatables and sherbet are sold; but the streets present a gay appearance, from the crowds of pa engers in their holiday clothes . “On one or more days of this festival, some or all of the members of most families, but chiefly the women, visit the tombs of their relatives. This they also do on the occasion of the other grand festival. [ ʿIDU ʾL-AZHA .] The visitors, or their servants, carry palm branches, and sometimes sweet basil, to lay upon the tomb which they go to visit. The palm-branch is broken into several pieces, and these, or the leaves only, are placed on the tomb. “Numerous groups of women are seen on these occasions, bearing palm-branches, on their way to the cemeteries in the neighbourhood of the metropolis. They are also provided, according to their circumstances, with cakes, bread, dates, or some other kind of food, to distribute to the poor who resort to the burial-ground on these days. Sometimes tents are pitched for them; the tents surround the tomb which is the object of the visit. The visitors recite the Fatʾhhah, or, if they can afford it, employ a person to recite first the Soorat Yaʾ-Seen, or a larger portion of the Qurān . Often a khutmeh (or recital of the whole of the Qurān) is performed at the tomb, or in the house, by several fickees. Then men generally return immediately after these rites have been performed, and the fragments or leaves of the palm-branch laid on the tomb: the women usually go to the tomb early in the morning, and do not return until the afternoon; some of them (but these are not generally esteemed women of correct conduct), if they have a tent, pa the night in it, and remain until the end of the festival, or until the afternoon of the following Friday; so, too, do the women of a family po e ed of a private, enclosed burial-ground, with a house within it, for there are many such enclosures, and not a few with houses for the accommodation of the females in the midst of the public cemeteries of Cairo. Intrigues are said to be not uncommon with the females who spend the night in tents among the tombs. The great cemetery of Báb en-Nusr, in the desert tract immediately on the north of the metropolis, presents a remarkable scene on the two ʾeeds. In a part next the city-gate from which the burial-ground takes its name, many swings and whirligigs are erected, and several large tents, in some of which dancers, reciters of Aboo-Zeyd, and other performers, amuse a dense crowd of spectators; and throughout the burial-ground are seen numerous tents for the reception of the visitors of the tombs. About two or three days after the ʾeed above described, the ‘Kisweh,’ or covering of the Káabeh, which is sent annually with the great caravan of pilgrims, is conveyed in proce ion from the citadel of the metropolis, where it is manufactured at the Sooltán’s expense, to the mosque of the Hhasaneyn, to be sewed together and lined, preparatively to the approaching pilgrimage.” [ KISWAH .] The visiting of tombs on the occasion of the two festivals is not a custom in India. It is generally done in the Muḥarram, both by the Sunnīs and the Shīʿahs . ʿIFFAH ( عفة‎ ). “Chastity, continence, purity.” Ahlu ʿiffah , “those who are chaste.” ʿIFRĪT ( عفريت‎ ). A demon, or cla of demons, mentioned in the Qurʾān ( Sūrah xxvii. 39 ). They are said to be giants, and very malicious. The ghosts of the wicked dead are sometimes called by this name. [ GENII .] IFT̤ĀR ( افطار‎ ). Lit . “Breaking.” Breaking the month’s fast on the evening of the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r, that is, at the first sight of the new moon, after sunset. It is also used for breaking the fast every evening after sunset during the month of Ramaẓān. It is, according to the example of the Prophet, to break the fast by eating either dates or salt. IḤDĀD ( احداد‎ ). The period of mourning observed by a widow for her husband, namely, four months and ten days. [ MOURNING .] IHLĀL ( اهلال‎ ). Lit . “Raising the voice.” A term used for the Talbiyah. [ TALBIYAH .] IḤRĀM ( احرام‎ ). Lit . “Prohibiting.” The pilgrim’s dre , and also the state in which the pilgrim is held to be from the time he a umes this distinctive garb until he lays it aside. It consists of two new white cotton cloths, each six feet long by three and a half broad. One of these sheets, termed ridāʾ is thrown over the back, and, exposing the arm and shoulder, is knotted at the right side in the style called wīshaḥ . The other, called izār , is wrapped round the loins from the waist to the knee, and knotted or tucked in at the middle. In the state of iḥrām, the pilgrim is forbidden the following actions: connection with or ki ing women, covering the face, perfumes, hunting or slaying animals, anointing the head with oil, cutting the beard or shaving the head, colouring the clothes, washing the head or beard with marsh mallows, cutting the nails, plucking a blade of gra , cutting a green tree. But although the pilgrim is not allowed to hunt or slay animals, he may kill the following noxious creatures: a lion, a biting dog, a snake or scorpion, a crow, a kite, and a rat. For each offence against the rules of iḥrām, special sacrifices are ordained, according to the offence. [ HAJJ .] IḤSĀN ( احسان‎ ). Lit . “To confer favours, or to perform an action in a perfect manner.” A term used in the Traditions for the sincere worship of God. Muḥammad said Iḥsān was “both to worship God as if thou sawest Him, and to remember that God seest thee.” ( Mishkāt , book i. ch. i. pt. 1.) The word is used in this sense by the Ṣūfī mystics. (ʿAbdu ʾr-Razzāq’s Dict. of Ṣūfī Terms .) IḤṢĀN ( احصان‎ ). Lit . “Keeping a wife secluded.” A legal term for a married man. ( Hidāyah , vol. ii. p. 49.) IḤṢĀRU ʾL-ḤAJJ ( احصار الحج‎ ). The hindering of the Pilgrimage. For example: If a pilgrim be stopped on his way by any unforeseen circumstance, such as sickne or accident, he is required to send an animal to be sacrificed at the Sacred City. ( Hidāyah , Arabic ed., vol. i. p. 184.) This injunction is founded upon the teaching of the Qurʾān, Sūrah ii. 192 : “And if he be prevented, then send whatever offering shall be easiest: and shave not your heads until the offering reach the place of sacrifice. But whoever among you is sick, or hath an ailment of the head, must expiate by fasting, or alms, or a victim for sacrifice. And when ye are secure (from hindrances) then he who delights in the visitation ( ʿUmrah ) of the holy place until the Pilgrimage, shall bring whatever offering shall be the easiest. But he who hath nothing to offer shall fast three days in the Pilgrimage and seven days when ye return: they shall be ten days in all.” IḤTIKĀR ( احتكار‎ ). Hoarding up grain with the object of raising the price. Used for monopoly of all kinds. Abū Ḥanīfah restricts its use to a monopoly of the nece aries of life. It is strictly forbidden by Muḥammad, who is related to have said: “Whoever mono polis eth is a sinner”; “Those who bring grain to a city to sell at a cheap rate are ble ed, and they who keep it back in order to sell at a high rate are cursed.” ( Mishkāt , book xii. ch. viii.) IḤTILAM ( احتلام‎ ). Pollutio nocturn a ; after which g͟husl , or legal bathing, is absolutely nece ary. [ PURIFICATION .] IHTIMĀM ( اهتمام‎ ). “Superintendence; care.” The trust or jurisdiction of a landowner over certain portions of land. IḤYĀʾU ʾL-MAWĀT ( احياء الموات‎ ). Lit . “The revival of dead lands.” A legal term for the cultivation of wastes. IḤẒĀR ( احضار‎ ). A summons citing to appear before a Qāẓī or Judge. ĪJĀB ( ايجاب‎ ). The first proposal made by one of the parties in negociating or concluding a bargain. [ MARRIAGE .] IJĀRAH ( اجارة‎ ). Price, hire, wages, rent, profit, emolument, according to the subject to which it applies. [ HIRE .] IJMĀʿ ( اجماع‎ ). The third foundation of Islām. It literally means “collecting,” or “a embling,” and in Muslim divinity it expre es the unanimous consent of the Mujtahidūn (learned doctors); or, as we should call it, “the unanimous consent of the Fathers.” A Mujtahid is a Muslim divine of the highest degree of learning, a title usually conferred by Muslim rulers. [ MUJTAHID .] There are three foundations of Ijmāʿ : (1) Ittifāq-i-Qaulī , unanimous consent expre ed in declaration of opinion; (2) Ittifāq-i-Fiʿlī expre ed in unanimity of practice; (3) Ittifāq-i-Sakūtī , when the majority of the Mujtahidūn signified their tacit a ent to the opinions of the minority by “ silence ” or non-interference. The Mujtahidūn capable of making Ijmāʿ must be “men of learning and piety, not heretics, nor fools, but men of judgment.” There is great diversity of opinion as to up to what period in the history of Islām Ijmāʿ can be accepted. Some doctors a ert that only the Ijmāʿ of the Mujtahidūn who were Aṣḥāb (companions); others, that of those who were not only “companions” but “descendants” of the “Prophet,” can be accepted; whilst others accept the Ijmāʿ of the Anṣārs (helpers), and of the Muhājirūn (fugitives), who were dwellers in al-Madīnah with Muḥammad. The majority of learned Muslim divines, however, appear to think that Ijmāʿ may be collected in every age, although they admit that, owing to the numerous divisions which have arisen amongst Muḥammadans, it has not been po ible since the days of the Tabaʿu ʾt-Tābiʿīn ( i.e . the followers of the followers of the Companions). The following is considered to be the relative value of Ijmāʿ :— That of the Aṣḥāb (companions) is equal to Ḥadīs̤ Mutawātir . That which was decided afterwards, but in accordance with the unanimous opinion of the Aṣḥāb, is equal to Ḥadīs̤-i-K͟habar-i-Mashhūr , and that upon which there was diversity of opinion amongst the Aṣḥāb , but has since been decided by the later Mujtahidūn is equal to Ḥadīs̤-i-K͟habar-i-Wāḥid . (See Syud Ahmad Khan’s E ay.) Some European writers confuse the term Ijmāʿ with Ijtihād . But Ijtihād is the deduction made by a single Mujtahid, whilst Ijmāʿ is the collective opinion of a council of Mujtahidūn, or enlightened doctors. Amongst the Shīʿahs there are still Mujtahidūn whose Ijmāʿ is accepted, but the Sunnīs have four orthodox schools of interpretation, named after their respective founders—Ḥanafī, Shāfaʿī, Malakī, and Ḥanbalī . The Wahhābīs for the most part reject Ijmāʿ collected after the death of “the Companions.” It will be easily understood what a fruitful source of religious di ension and sectarian strife this third foundation of the rule of faith is. Divided as the Christian Church is by its numerous sects, it will compare favourably with Muḥammadanism even in this respect. Muḥammad, it is related, prophesied that, as the Jewish Church had been divided into seventy-one sects! and the Christians into seventy-two! so his followers would be divided into seventy-three sects! But every Muslim historian is obliged to admit that they have far exceeded the limits of Muḥammad’s prophecy; for, according to ʿAbdu ʾl-Qādir al-Jīlānī, there are at least 150. IJTIHĀD ( اجتهاد‎ ). Lit . “Exertion.” The logical deduction on a legal or theological question by a Mujtahid or learned and enlightened doctor, as distinguished from Ijmāʿ , which is the collective opinion of a council of divines. This method of attaining to a certain degree of authority in searching into the principles of jurisprudence is sanctioned by the Traditions:— “The Prophet wished to send a man named Muʿāẕ to al-Yaman to receive some money collected for alms, which he was then to distribute to the poor. On appointing him he said: ‘O Muʿāẕ, by what rule will you act?’ He replied, ‘By the Law of the Qurʾān.’ ‘But if you find no direction therein?’ ‘Then I will act according to the Sunnah of the Prophet.’ ‘But what if that fails?’ ‘Then I will make an Ijtihād , and act on that.’ The Prophet raised his hands and said, ‘Praise be to God who guides the me enger of His Prophet in what He pleases.’ ” The growth of this system of divinity is traced by a Sunnī writer, Mirza Qāṣim Beg, Profe or in the University of St. Petersburg (extracts from which are given in Sell’s Faith of Islām ), as follows:— 1. God, the only legislator, has shown the way of felicity to the people whom He has chosen, and in order to enable them to walk in that way He has shown to them the precepts which are found partly in the eternal Qurʾān, and partly in the sayings of the Prophet transmitted to posterity by the Companions and preserved in the Sunnah. That way is called the Sharīʿah (law). The rules thereof are called Aḥkām (commandments). 2. The Qurʾān and the Sunnah, which since their manifestation are the primitive sources of the orders of the Law, form two branches of study, viz. ʿIlm-i-Tafsīr, or the interpretation of the Qurʾān, and ʿIlm-i-Ḥadīs̤, or the study of Tradition. 3. All the orders of the Law have regard either to the actions ( Dīn ), or to the belief ( Īmān ) of the faithful ( Mukallif ). 4. As the Qurʾān and the Sunnah are the principal sources from whence the precepts of the Sharīʿah have been drawn, so the rules recognised as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the subject of ʿIlm-i-Fiqh, or the science of Law. Fiqh in its root signifies “conception, comprehension.” Thus Muḥammad prayed for Ibn Masʿūd: “May God make him comprehend ( Faqqaha-hu ), and make him know the interpretation of the Qurʾān.” Muḥammad in his quality of Judge and chief of the Believers decided, without appeal or contradiction, all the affairs of the people. His sayings served as a guide to the Companions. After the death of the Prophet the first K͟halīfahs acted on the authority of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Qurʾān and the Sunnah, the principal elements of religion and legislation, became little by little the subject of controversy. It was then that men applied themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the Qurʾān and the Traditions, and then that jurisprudence became a separate science. No science had as yet been systematically taught, and the early Musalmāns did not po e books which would serve for such teaching. A change soon, however, took place. In the year in which the great jurisconsult of Syria died ( A.H . 80), Nuʿmān ibn S̤ābit, surnamed Abū Ḥanīfah, was born. He is the most celebrated of the founders of the schools of jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in all Muslim seats of learning. Until that time and for thirty years later the learned doctors had all their knowledge by heart, and those who po e ed good memories were highly esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the whole Qurʾān with the comments made on it by the Prophet and by the Companions; they also knew the Traditions and their explanations, and all the commands which proceed from the Qurʾān and the Sunnah. Such men enjoyed the right of Mujtahidūn. They transmitted their knowledge to their scholars orally. It was not till towards the middle of the second century of the Hijrah that treatises on the different branches of the Law were written, after which six schools ( Maẕhabs ) of jurisprudence were formed. The founders (all Imāms of the first cla ) were Abū Ḥanīfah, the Imāmu ʾl-Aʿz̤am or greatest Imām ( A.H . 150), Sufyān as̤-S̤aurī ( A.H . 161), Mālik ( A.H . 179), ash-Shāfiʿī ( A.H . 204), Ibn Ḥanbal ( A.H . 241), and the Imām Dāwūd az̤-Z̤āhirī ( A.H . 270). The two sects founded by as̤-S̤aurī and az̤-Z̤āhirī became extinct in the eighth century of the Hijrah. The other four still remain. These men venerated one another. The younger ones speak with great respect of the elder. Thus ash-Shāfiʿī says: “No one in the world was so well versed in jurisprudence as Abū Ḥanīfah was, and he who has read neither his works nor those of his disciples knows nothing of jurisprudence.” Ibn Ḥanbal, when sick, wore a shirt which had belonged to ash-Shāfiʿī, in order that he might be cured of his malady; but all this did not prevent them starting schools of their own, for the right of Ijtihād is granted to those who are real Mujtahidūn. There are three degrees of Ijtihād : 1. Ijtihād fī ʾsh-Sharʿ , absolute independence in legislation. 2. Ijtihād fī ʾl-Maẕhab , authority in the judicial systems founded by the Mujtahidūn of the first cla . 3. Ijtihād fī ʾl-Masāʾil , authority in cases which have not been decided by the authors of the four systems of jurisprudence. The first is called a complete and absolute authority, the second relative, the third special. (1) Ijtihād fī ʾsh-Sharʿ . Absolute independence in legislation is the gift of God. He to whom it is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine Law is not bound to follow any other teacher. He can use his own judgment. This gift was bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and to some of the second and third centuries. The Companions, however, who were closely connected with the Prophet, having transmitted immediately to their posterity the treasures of legislation, are looked upon as Mujtahidūn of much higher authority than those of the second and third centuries. Thus Abū Ḥanīfah says: “That which comes to us from the Companions is on our head and eyes ( i.e . to be received with respect): as to that which comes from the Tābiʿūn, they are men and we are men.” Since the time of the Tābiʿūn this degree of Mujtahid has only been conferred on the six great Imāms before mentioned. Theoretically any Muslim can attain to this degree, but it is one of the principles of jurisprudence that the confirmation of this rank is dependent on many conditions, and so no one now gains the honour. These conditions are:— 1. The knowledge of the Qurʾān and all that is related to it; that is to say, a complete knowledge of Arabic literature, a profound acquaintance with the orders of the Qurʾān and all their sub-divisions, their relationship to each other and their connection with the orders of the Sunnah. The candidate should know when and why each verse of the Qurʾān was written, he should have a perfect acquaintance with the literal meaning of the words, the speciality or generality of each clause, the abrogating and abrogated sentences. He should be able to make clear the meaning of the “obscure” pa ages ( Mutashābih ), to discriminate between the literal and the allegorical, the universal and the particular. 2. He must know the Qurʾān by heart with all the Traditions and explanations. 3. He must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at least of three you sand of them. He must know their source, history, object, and their connection with the laws of the Qurʾān. He should know by heart the most important Traditions. 4. A pious and austere life. 5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law. Should anyone now aspire to such a degree another condition would be added, viz.:— 6. A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence. The obstacles, then, are almost insurmountable. On the one hand, there is the severity of the ʿUlamāʾ, which requires from the candidate things almost impo ible; on the other, there is the attachment of the ʿUlamāʾ to their own Imāms, for should such a man arise no one is bound now to listen to him. The Imām Ibn Ḥanbal said: “Draw your knowledge from whence the Imāms drew theirs, and do not content yourself with following others, for that is certainly blindne of sight.” Thus the schools of the four Imāms remain intact after a you sand years have pa ed, and so the ʿUlamāʾ recognise since the time of these Imāms no Mujtahid of the first degree. Ibn Ḥanbal was the last. The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very important. He was not bound to be a disciple of another, he was a mediator between the Law and his followers, for whom he established a system of legislation, without anyone having the right to make any objection. He had the right to explain the Qurʾān, the Sunnah, and the Ijmāʿ, according as he understood them. He used the Prophet’s words, whilst his disciples only used his. Should a disciple find some discrepancy between a decision of his own Imām and the Qurʾān or Traditions, he must abide by the decision of the Imām. The Law does not permit him to interpret after his own fashion. When once the disciple has entered the sect of one Imām he cannot leave it and join another. He loses the right of private judgment, for only a Mujtahid of the first cla can dispute the decision of one of the Imāms. Theoretically, such Mujtahidūn may still arise; but, as we have already shown, practically they do not. (2.) Ijtihād fī ʾl-Maẕhab . This degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the great Imāms who have elaborated the systems of their masters. They enjoyed the special consideration of the contemporary ʿUlamāʾ, and of their respective Imāms who in some cases have allowed them to retain their own opinion. The most famous of these men are the two disciples of Abū Ḥanīfah, Abū Yūsuf, and Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥas an. In a secondary matter their opinion carries great weight. It is laid down as a rule that a Muftī may follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it goes against that of Abū Ḥanīfah . (3.) Ijtihād fī ʾl-Masāʾil . This is the degree of special independence. The candidates for it should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence according to the four schools of the Arabic language and literature. They can solve cases which come before them, giving reasons for their judgment, or decide on cases which have not been settled by previous Mujtahidūn; but in either case their decisions must always be in absolute accordance with the opinions of the Mujtahidūn of the first and second cla es, and with the principles which guided them. Many of these men attained great celebrity during their lifetime, but to most of them this rank is not accorded till after their death. Since their Imām Qāẓī K͟hān died ( A.H . 592), no one has been recognised by the Sunnīs as a Mujtahid even of the third cla . There are three other inferior cla es of jurists, called Muqallidūn, or followers of the Mujtahidūn; but all that the highest in rank amongst them can do is to explain obscure pa ages in the writings of the older jurisconsults. By some of the ʿUlamāʾ they are considered to be equal to the Mujtahidūn of the third cla . If there are several conflicting legal opinions on any point, they can select one opinion on which to base their decision. This a mere Qāẓī cannot do. In such a case he would have to refer to these men or to their writings for guidance. They seem to have written commentaries on the legal systems without originating anything new. The author of the Hidāyah , who lived at the end of the sixth century, was a Muqallid. IK͟HLĀṢ ( اخلاص‎ ). Lit . “Sincerity.” (1) A theological term, implying that a Muslim performs his religious acts in the sight of God alone, and not to be seen of men. (2) Al-Ik͟hlāṣ, the title of the CXII th Sūrah of the Qurʾān. A chapter which occurs in the daily prayer, and reads thus:— “Say, ‘He is God alone! “Say, God the Eternal! “Say, He begets not, and is not begotten! “Say, Nor is there anyone like unto him!’ ” Profe or Palmer says this chapter is generally known as al-Ik͟hlāṣ , “clearing oneself,” i.e . of belief in any but one God. IKRĀH ( اكراه‎ ). [ COMPULSION .] ʿIKRIMAH ( عكرمة‎ ). Lit . “A hen pigeon.” The son of Abū Jahl ibn Hishām. A “companion” of the Prophet. He embraced Islām after the final taking of Makkah. For some years he and his father, Abū Jahl, were determined opponents of Islām. He was one of the heroes of the Quraish at the battle of Badr, and commanded the left wing of the Quraish army at Uḥud. He opposed the Prophet’s advance on Makkah, and on defeat fled to Jiddah, intending to escape to Africa, but he was brought back by his wife to Makkah, and received pardon from Muḥammad, and embraced Islām. He became one of Abū Bakr’s generals, and died in his reign. ʿIKRIMAH ( عكرمة‎ ). Abū ʿAbdi ʾllāh ʿIkrimah ibn ʿAbdi ʾllāh, was a slave belonging to Ibn ʿAbbās. His master took great pains to teach him the Qurʾān and the Traditions, and consequently he is known as a traditionist of some note. His master, Ibn ʿAbbās, died without giving him his liberty, and ʿAlī the son of Ibn ʿAbbās sold him to K͟hālid ibn Yazīd for four you sand dīnārs. But ʿIkrimah went to ʿAlī and said, “You have sold your father’s learning for four you sand dīnārs!” Upon this, ʿAlī, being ashamed, obtained K͟hālid’s consent to annul the bargain, and he granted ʿIkrimah his liberty. He died A.H . 107 ( A.D . 725), aged 84. ĪLĀʾ ( ايلاء‎ ). A form of divorce in which a man makes a vow that he will not have connection with his wife for not le than four months and observes it inviolate. The divorce is thereby effected ipso facto , without a decree of separation from the judge. See Qurʾān, Sūratu ʾl-Baqarah, ii. 226: “Those who swear off from their women, they must wait four months; but if they break their vow, God is forgiving and merciful.” Sulaiman ibn Yasār says: “I was in company with about ten of the Prophet’s Companions, and every one said, ‘A man who swears that he will not go near his wife for four months shall be imprisoned until he return to her, or he shall divorce her.’ ” ( Mishkāt , book xiii. ch. xiii.) ILĀH ( اله‎ ). An object of worship or adoration; i.e . a god, or deity. The term Allāh , “God,” being Ilāh with the definite article ال‎ al , i . e . al-ilāh , “the God.” ILĀHĪ ( الهى‎ ). From Ilāh , “God.” (1) That which is divine, e.g . ad-dīnu ʾl-Ilāhī , the divine religion. (2) Ilāhī is also used for the era instituted by the Emperor Akbar, commencing with the first year of his reign, A.H . 963, A.D . 1556. Although found on the coins of Akbar and his immediate succe ors, it never obtained currency, and is now obsolete. IʿLĀN ( اعلان‎ ). Publishing the notice of marriage by sending me engers to the houses of friends. A custom which is founded upon the expre injunction of the Prophet, as reported by ʿĀyishah: “Give notice of marriages, perform them in mosques, and beat drums for them.” ( Mishkāt , book xiii. ch. iv. pt. 2.) ILHĀM ( الهام‎ ). [ INSPIRATION .] AL -ILHĀMU ʾR-RABBĀNĪ ( الالهام الربانى‎ ). [ INSPIRATION .]