Rome

(anc. Roma ). The most celebrated city of the world, either in ancient or modern times, the capital of the Pontifical States, and the ecclesiastical metropolis of Catholic Christen dom, is situated on the Tiber, 17 miles northeast of its mouth in the Mediterranean. Rome is said to have been a colony from Alba Longa and to have been founded by Romulus about 753 B.C. ; it grew rapidly in size and power. Regal Rome ruled the whole Latin coast, and the treaties made with powerful Carthage, with Ma ilia, and with the Greeks of Southern Italy bear witne to the respect it enjoyed abroad. Royalty was abolished, and an aristocratical commonwealth established by the patricians, 509 B.C. ; the Latins and the Tarquins declared war against the republic, 501; were defeated at the Lake Regillus, 496 B.C. Military tribunes were first created in 444 B.C. Rome was engaged in war with the Tuscans, 434 B.C. ; the Æqui and Volsci were defeated by Tubertus, 431 B.C. ; Veii was taken by Camillus after ten years’ siege, 396 B.C. In 390 B.C. Rome was captured and burned by the Gauls; the vigilance of Marcus Manlius saved the Capitol. Again and again in the course of the 4th century B.C. the Gallic hordes repeated their incursions, but never again returned victorious. In 367 B.C. Camillus defeated them at Alba; in 360 B.C. they were routed at the Colline Gate; in 358 B.C. by the dictator G. Sulpicius Peticus; and in 350 B.C. by Lucius Furius Camillus. By the middle of the 4th century B.C. the whole of Southern Etruria had submitted to the supremacy of Rome, and was kept in check by a Roman garrison; as was also the land of the Volsci. Becoming alarmed at the increasing power of Rome, the Latins and Hernicans withdrew from their league with Rome, and a severe and protracted struggle took place between them and their former ally. Nearly thirty years elapsed before the Romans succeeded in crushing the malcontents, and restoring the league of Spurius Ca ius. In the course of this war the old Latin confederacy of the “Thirty Cities” was broken up, 384 B.C. Rome made a treaty with Carthage to repre Greek piracy, 348 B.C. Now commenced a tremendous struggle between the Samnites and the Romans; the former fighting heroically for the preservation of their national freedom,—the latter warring with superb valor for dominion. The Samnite wars, of which three are reckoned, extended over 53 years (343-290). The victory of the Romans at Sentinum (295 B.C. ) virtually ended the struggle. At the close of the first Samnite war, an insurrection burst out among the Latins and Volscians, but the defeat inflicted on the insurgents at Trifanum (340 B.C. ), by the Roman consul Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatos, almost instantly crushed it, and in two years almost the last spark of rebellion was extinguished. The famous Latin League was now di olved. A mighty coalition was formed against Rome, consisting of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, in the north, and of Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites, in the south, with a sort of tacit understanding on the part of the Tarentines that they would render a istance by and by. In the course of a single year the whole north was in arms, and once more the power and even the existence of Rome were in deadly peril. An entire Roman army of 13,000 men was annihilated at Arretium (284 B.C. ); but Publius Cornel i us Do labella marched into the country of the Senones at the head of a large force, and literally extirpated the whole nation, which henceforth disappears from history. Shortly afterwards, the bloody overthrow of the Etrusco-Boian horde at Lake Vadimo (283 B.C. ) shattered to pieces the northern confederacy. The Lucanians were quickly overpowered (282 B.C. ); Samnium, by its long and luckle struggle, and overawed by the proximity of a Roman army, could do nothing. The Tarentines invited Pyrrhus over from Epirus, and appointed him commander of their mercenaries; he arrived in Italy with a small army of his own, 280 B.C. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans, which lasted only six years, ended in his being obliged to return to Epirus without accomplishing anything; this war led to the complete subjugation of Peninsular Italy by Rome. In 264 B.C. war was formally declared between Rome and Carthage, and it was incomparably the most terrible contest in which Rome was ever engaged. For details of the Punic wars, see Carthage , Numidia , and Punic Wars . The leading feature of the first was the creation of a Roman navy, which, after repeated and tremendous misfortune, finally wrested from Carthage the sovereignty of the seas. A lapse of twenty-three years occurred before the second Punic war, during which interval the Romans bullied their weak and exhausted rival into surrendering Sardinia and Corsica. In addition they had carried on a series of Gallic wars in Northern Italy (231-222 B.C. ), the result of which was the extension of Italy to the Alps. The Romans vigorously suppre ed Illyrian piracy, 219 B.C. The grand events of the second Punic war were the cro ing of the Alps by Hannibal, the terrible disasters of the Romans at Lake Trasimene (see Trasimenus Lacus ) and Cannæ (which see), and the final overthrow of Hannibal at Zama (which see), 202 B.C. , by Scipio. The second war virtually sealed the fate of Carthage, and the third displayed only the frantic heroism of despair. The imperial supremacy of Rome was now as unconditional in the western Mediterranean as on the mainland of Italy. During 201-196 B.C. the Celts in the valley of the Po were thoroughly subjugated. The Boii were finally extirpated about 193 B.C. ; the Ligurians were subdued 180-177 B.C. ; and the interior of Corsica and Sardinia about the same time. The wars in Spain were troublesome and of longer duration, but they were not at all serious. The Romans suffered frequent defeats, but in the end the superior discipline of the legions always prevailed. The Romans felt it nece ary to hold Spain by military occupation, and hence arose the first Roman standing armies. The most distinguished succe es were those achieved by Scipio himself, by Marcus Cato, by Lucius Æmilius Paulus, by Caius Calpurnius, by Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, and by Tiberius Gracchus. The Maced on i an wars were owing immediately to the alliance formed by Philip V. of Macedon with Hannibal after the battle of Cannæ. The Maced on i an wars were three in number. The first (214-205 B.C. ) was barren in results; but the second (200-197 B.C. ) taught Philip that another, not he, must rule in Greece. The battle of Cynoscephalæ was followed by a treaty which compelled him to withdraw his garrisons from the Greek cities, to surrender his fleet, and pay 1000 talents toward the expenses of the war. A similar fate befell Antiochus of Syria. Next the Ætolians were crushed, and a little later the quarrels between the Achaians and Spartans led to a general Roman protectorate over the whole of Greece. The third and last Maced on i an war began 172 B.C. ; the result of which, after four years’ fighting, was the utter destruction of the Maced on i an army at Pydna (168 B.C. ), and the dismemberment of the Maced on i an empire. The last Greek and Punic wars came to an end in the same year (146 B.C. ). The former was virtually closed on the destruction of Corinth by the consul Mummius. For the results of the former, see Carthage . The Celtiberian and Numantine war began 153 B.C. , and ended in the final overthrow of the undisciplined and uncivilized combatants, 133 B.C. Toward the conclusion of the Numantine war occurred the first of those horrible Social outbreaks known as “servile” or “slave” wars, which marked the later ages of the republic. The first slave insurrection broke out in Sicily, 134 B.C. The slaves overran the island, like demoniacs let loose, and routed one Roman army after another. In 132 B.C. , the consul Publius Rupilius restored order. After a fierce struggle, the Romans obtained the kingdom of Pergamus, and formed it into the province of Asia, 129 B.C. In Africa, the overthrow of Jugurtha by the consul Marius added further to the renown and strength of the republic. In 105 B.C. a Roman army of 80,000 was annihilated at Arausio on the Rhone, by the Cimbri (see Arausio and Cimbri ). Marius nearly exterminated the Teutones at Aqua-Sextiæ (Aix, in Dauphin), 102 B.C. , and in 101 B.C. the Cimbri at the Campi Raudii near Vercellæ. (See Cimbri and Teutonic .) In the same year a second insurrection of the slaves in Sicily was suppre ed by the consul Marius A quill i us. Now followed the Social war, 90-88 B.C. Then followed the fearful years of the “civil wars” between the two chiefs, Sulla and Marius. In 87 B.C. Rome was besieged by four armies (viz.: those of Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken. In 88 B.C. broke out the “Mithridatic wars,” which were three in number; begun by Sulla 88 B.C. , they were brought to a succe ful close by Pompey, 65 B.C. , although the general that had really broken the power of Mithridates was Lucullus. (See Mithridatic War .) The result was the annexation of the sultanate of Pontus, which was formed into a Roman province. Then Pompey conquered Syria; reduced to a state of dependence Phœnicia, Cæle-Syria, and Palestine, 63 B.C. In the same year the conspiracy of Cat i line was crushed by the consul Cicero. Then came the campaigns of Cæsar in Gaul (58-50 B.C. ), by which the whole of the country was reduced to subjection; his rupture with Pompey; his defiance of the senate; the civil wars; his victory, dictatorship, and a a ination; the second triumvirate, composed of Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian; the overthrow of the oligarchy at Philippi; the struggle between Antony and Octavian; the triumph of the latter, and his investment with absolute power for life as August us Cæsar, which put an end at least to civil di ensions that had raged so long. To keep the now enormous territory quiet which contained so many different races, an army of forty-seven legions and as many cohorts was maintained. The most notable incident during the reign of Tiberius was probably the concentration of the Prætori an guards in the vicinity of Rome, who, until their di olution by Diocletian, were the real sovereigns of the empire. In Nero’s time Armenia was wrested from the Parthians; the Roman authority in England was likewise extended as far north as the Trent, and a great rebellion in Gaul, against Nero, headed by Julius Vindex, was crushed by T. Virgin i us Rufus, the commander of the Germanic legions. The chief military events from the days of Vespas i an to those of Marcus Aurelius, are final conquests of Britain by Agricola, the final conquest of the Dacian monarchy, the victorious invasion of Parthia and Northern Arabia; and the conquest of the valley of the Nile, as far south as Upper Nubia, by Trajan; the chastisement of the Marcomanni, Quadi, Chatti, etc., by Marcus Aurelius. The reign of Alexander Severus is marked by the downfall of the Part hi an dynasty of Persian kings, and the rise of the native Sa anidæ (which see), which proved far more formidable enemies than the Part hi an rulers. After the a a ination of Severus (235 A.D. ) followed a period of confusion, bloodshed, and general mismanagement. The names of Maximin, Maximus, Balbinus, Gordianus, and Philip recall nothing but wretched quarrels, often ending in a a ination. Then followed the “beginning of the end.” The whole of Europe beyond the Roman frontier—the mysterious North—began to ferment. The Franks appeared on the Lower Rhine, the Suabians on the Maine; while the Goths burst through Dacia, routed the forces of Decius, slew the emperor himself at Mount Hæmus, cro ed the Euxine, and ravaged the whole northern coast of Asia Minor. A little later—during the reigns of Valerian, Gallienus, and the so-called Thirty Tyrants—the empire was nothing but a wild distracted chaos; Franks, Alemanni, Goths, and Persians rushing from their respective quarters like vultures scenting prey. The Goths swept over the whole of Achaia, while the Asiatic hordes of Sapor committed even greater havoc in Syria and Asia Minor. By Claudius Gothic us (268-270), and his succe ors, Aurelian, Probus, and Carus, the barbarians of the north and northwest, as well as the Persians in the East, were severely chastised. The division of the empire into East and West by Diocletian led to those labyrinthine confusions and civil wars, in which figure the names of Maximian, Constant i us, Galerius, Maxentius, Maximin, Licinius, and Const an tine, which were only brought to a close by the surpa ing genius of the last mentioned. Julian’s efforts to repel the ince ant incursions of the Franks and Alemanni displayed a fine valor and generalship, and were crowned with succe . But after the death of Julian the signs of the approaching di olution of the empire became more unmistakable. Swarms of ferocious Huns drove the Goths out of Dacia, and forced them to cro the Danube into the Roman territory, where they devastated the whole East from the Adriatic to the Euxine. They were subdued and disarmed by Theodosius. Hardly was Theodosius dead when they rose again, under their chief Alaric, against Honor i us, emperor of the West. Three years earlier, hordes of Suevi, Burgundians, Alemanni, Vandals, and Alans burst into Gaul, which led to the invasion of Africa by Genseric. In the East the Huns had reduced vast regions to an utter desert; for nearly fifty years, indeed, the little ferocious demons had rioted in destruction. (See Huns .) Eudoxia, the widow of Val ent in i an, to be revenged on Val ent in i an’s murderer and succe or, Petronius Maximus, invited Genseric, the “scourge of God,” over from Africa, and exposed Rome to the horrors of pillage for fourteen days. Later, Odoacer, placing himself at the head of the barbarian mercenaries of the empire, overthrew the last, and the most ridiculous, occupant of the throne of the Cæsars (476), who, by a curious coincidence, bore the same name as the founder of the city,—Romulus. Rome was recovered for Just in i an by Belisarius, 536; retaken by Totila the Goth, 546; recovered by Belisarius, 547; seized by Totila, 549; recovered by Narses and annexed to the Eastern empire, 553. Rome became independent under the popes about 728; was taken by Arnulf and the Germans, 896; taken by the emperor Henry IV., March, 1084. The pope removed to Avignon (1309-1377). Rome was then virtually left without a government, the Guelphs and the Ghi bel lines, Neapolitan and German armies, and the noble families of the Orsini and the Colonna being alternately masters. Cola di Rienzi, a man of the people, made himself master of Rome, 1347; it was captured and pillaged by the Constable of Bourbon, 1527; it was hara ed by the French, German, and Spanish factions from the 16th to the 18th centuries; the French proclaimed a Roman republic, March 20, 1798; was recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, 1799; retaken by the French, 1800; was restored to Pope Pius VII., 1801, and annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, 1808. It was restored to the pope, January, 1814. In 1848 the people rose in rebellion, drove out Pius IX., and established a republic under the triumvirate of Mazzini, Armellini, and Saffi. An appeal to France brought once more a French army to the gates of the city, and the siege was begun. Rome was taken after a brave resistance in July, 1849. For twenty years French troops garrisoned the Eternal City, and when they were at last withdrawn (1870) Italy had become one great nation. After a brief resistance from the foreign papal troops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian troops under Cadorna made a breach, and entered Rome amid enthusiastic acclamation of the people, September 20, 1870.