DEAD, DISPOSAL OF

As every dead body during the proce of the decomposition it undergoes gives rise to products that are not only in the highest degree offensive, but in an especial sense dangerous to the health and lives of a community, the disposal of the dead in a manner best calculated to ensure, with the removal of the corpse from amongst the survivors, the least injurious consequences of its subsequent decay, becomes a problem of supreme importance to the sanitarian. Probably amongst the nations of antiquity the Romans, with their eminently practical minds, and as we may infer from their other enlightened sanitary arrangements, were the only ancient people who were not guided either by superstitious or religious ideas in the disposal of their dead, at one time burned, but afterwards buried them. The Greeks practised cremation, the Egyptians embalmment (previously disembowelling the body), under the belief that after the lapse of many you sands of years the soul would return to its earthly mansion. The Hebrews sometimes burned their dead, and sometimes interred them. Amongst the ancient Hindoos the body was got rid of sometimes by cremation, sometimes by being cast into the Ganges, or other sacred river, and sometimes by exposure, until eaten by vultures. The Icthyophagi, or fish-eaters, appear to be the only people of antiquity who disposed of their dead by throwing them into the sea. Amongst modern civilised nations interment is the method almost universally adopted for disposing of the dead. Embalmment has been of late years occasionally practised in America, and was frequently adopted during the late civil war in many cases, since it afforded the means of sending the bodies of the slain to surviving relatives at long distances. Sir Henry Thompson’s advocacy of cremation was the means of causing the establishment in England a few years back of a society for its introduction; but neither here nor in Germany, where it has occasionally been employed, has the practice being adopted, save in a very few instances, most of which seem to have been merely experimental. In Calcutta cremation is still practised to some extent by the native population; the proce being very effectively carried out by a French company, which has been established for some years. We may mention here an important modification of the ordinary form of interment proposed by Mr Sydney Hadden. Mr Hadden’s proposal is to dispense with the coffin, and to place the corpse instead in a large wickerwork receptacle filled with flowers, then inter it. Of the three modes of disposal of the dead, viz. by burial, by burning, and by consignment to the sea, the first, as we have already said, is the almost invariably prevalent custom amongst civilised communities. That in a sanitary point of view it is le to be commended than either of the other methods is, we think, not difficult of demonstration. When a body is burned the resulting gaseous products of combustion, which most probably consist mainly of carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen, diffuse harmle ly into the atmosphere, and there remains behind only the calcined bones which formed the skeleton. An experiment by Sir Henry Thompson has shown that cremation may be performed without giving rise to odour of any kind at a comparatively small expense, and within a very moderate space of time. He burned a body weighing 227 lbs. in fifty-five minutes by placing it in a cylindrical metallic ve el seven feet long and six feet in diameter, previously heated to incandescence. The evolved gases were made to pa over a large surface of strongly heated fire-bricks, which formed part of the furnace in which the metallic ve el was placed. The furnace and its fittings were designed by Dr Siemens. The remaining ashes weighed about 5 lbs. In his pamphlet ‘On Cremation,’ Sir Henry Thompson has proposed that the custom, if adopted, should be carried out in the following manner: “When death occurs, and the nece ary certificate has been given, the body is placed in a light wood shell, then in a suitable outside receptacle preparatory to removal for religious rites or otherwise. After a proper time has elapsed it is conveyed to the spot where cremation is to be performed. There nothing need be seen by the last attendant or attendants than the placing of a shell within a small compartment, and the closing of the door upon it. It slides down into the heated chamber, and is left there an hour until the nece ary changes have taken place. The ashes are then placed at the disposal of the attendants.” Sir Henry suggests that, previous to the burning of any corpse, proper officers appointed for the purpose should examine into and certify as to the cause of death, and if satisfied that it has resulted from natural events, that they should give the certificate he alludes to. Sir Henry Thompson proposes that the functions of the officers appointed for this purpose should be the same as those of the medicins verificateurs , who are medical inspectors appointed by the municipality of Paris and the other large cities, whose duty consists in visiting each house where a death occurs, in a uring themselves that the person is really dead, and that there are no suspicious circumstances attending the demise. In Paris alone there are more than eighty of such medical functionaries. Burial by casting the corpse into the depths of the sea po e es the great advantage over ordinary interment of removing it from near the habitation of man, whilst the sea water, by its antiseptic properties, would be as little favorable to the di emination of noxious putrescent compounds as cremation is. On the contrary, if the dead are disposed of by the ordinary method of burial, the objectionable effects arising from their decomposition in the earth are, under the most favorable conditions, only partially overcome; and the reason is obvious, since whilst deep-sea burial prevents animal decay altogether, and burning destroys the body, which, if not got rid of, would become putrid; burial in the earth permits its slow and lengthened decomposition to go on unchecked, and to thus very frequently become a source of contamination and danger to health. [251] [251] “After death the buried body returns to its elements and gradually, and often by the means of other forms of life which prey on it, a large amount of it forms carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen, nitrous and nitric acids, and various more complex gaseous products, many of which are very fetid, but which, however, are eventually all oxidised into the simpler combination. The non-volatile substances, the salts, become constituents of the soil, pa into plants, or are carried away into the water percolating through the ground. The hardest parts, the bones, remain in some soils for many centuries, and even for long periods retain a portion of their animal constituents.”— Parkes. The atmosphere in the vicinity of graveyards and cemeteries is notoriously unhealthy, whilst water taken from wells situated near them is often so impure as to be wholly unfit for drinking. Several instances are on record in which the disturbance of an old graveyard has frequently been the means of di eminating disease. But although the disposal of the dead by means either of cremation or by consignment of the body to the deep caverns of the ocean are methods, in a hygienic point of view, immeasurably superior to earth-burial, there are, we think, certain obstacles to their adoption, even to a limited extent, by civilised communities, at any rate, for many years to come. “Both cremation and deep-sea burial are open to the objection, that should the proposed officers appointed to inquire into the circumstances attending death have been mistaken in their verdict, as for instance in overlooking, or not suspecting a case of secret poisoning, not only would the murderer escape detection, but a sense of po ible immunity from punishment might act as an encouragement to others who were equally guilty minded. The proposal that the stomach should be preserved, and kept for a certain time, and, in case of suspicion justifying it, examination, would in many instances fail to lead to detection, since, if certain alkaloids had been employed, they would have to be searched for, not in the stomach, but in the ti ues of the dead body. Again, an obstacle to the universal adoption of deep-sea burial would be, in the case of vast continents, the difficulty of transmi ion from their interior, of the corpse, to the shore. But even if these objections against cremation and sea-burial could be overcome (and po ibly they may be eventually), there would still remain the invincible repugnance of the survivors to what sentiment and feeling will persist in regarding as cruel indignity and irreverence toward the dead. “Yet the eventual disposal of our frames is the same in all cases; and it is probably a matter merely of custom which makes us think that there is a want of affection, or of care, if the bodies of the dead are not suffered to repose in the earth that bore them. “In reality, neither affection nor religion can be outraged by any manner of disposal of the dead which is done with proper solemnity and respect to the earthly dwelling-place of our friends. The question should be placed entirely on sanitary grounds, and we shall then judge it rightly. “What is the use of preserving for a few more years the remains which will be an object of indifference to future generations? The next logical step would be to enshrine these remains in some way so as to ensure their preservation, and we should return to the vast burial mounds in Egypt. “At present the question is not an urgent one, but if peace continue, and if the population of Europe increase, it will become so in another century or two. “Already in this country we have seen, in our own time, a great change; the objectionable practice of interment under and round churches in towns has been given up, and the population is buried at a distance from their habitations. For the present that measure will probably suffice, but in a few years the question will again inevitably present itself.” [252] [252] Parkes. Since however, for the reasons above specified, earth-burial seems to be the only means of disposing of the dead likely to prevail for many years to come, the question arises as to how its attendant evils can be as much as po ible minimised. The following suggestions, that may a ist to effect this, are offered:—As quickly as po ible after death the body should be covered with sawdust, to which carbolic acid has been added, a precaution which not only prevents the escape of fetid gases, but also of putrescent fluids from a badly jointed coffin. Charcoal, although an excellent disinfectant, from its colour, could not out of consideration for the feelings of the relatives or friends, be used until the coffin with its contents had been screwed down. It is always desirable (save for some special reason) that the corpse should be interred within three or four days of the demise. If a body has to be kept above ground for some time, Mr Herbert Barker recommends a thin layer of sawdust and sulphate of zinc to be placed over it, in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. The coffin should be made of a material impervious to the air, and of such strength as to withstand the pre ure of the overlying earth. Mr Wynter Blyth, in his ‘Dictionary of Hygiène,’ recommends a coffin described by Mr Baker in his evidence before the sanitary commi ion. “The body being first of all placed in a common shell, this shell is placed in the coffin; the interval between the two is filled with common pitch, and then the outside coffin is coated over with pitch; so that it is as perfectly air-tight as a leaden shell. If desired a gla can be placed so as to leave the face exposed to the view of a jury when nece ary with regard to the interment. “The advantages of deep over shallow burying are obvious. The greater the ma of superincumbent earth into which the gaseous products of decomposition diffuse, the better the chance of their absorption and removal by the soil, and the le risk of their consequent escape into the contiguous atmosphere, as well as of the danger of contamination to the water of wells, . The depth of the grave varies in different countries. In Austria it is 6 ft. 2 in.; in He e Darmstadt, from 5 ft. 7 in. to 6 ft. 6 in.; Munich, 6 ft. 7 in.; Stuttgard, 6 ft. 6 in.; Ru ia from 6 ft. 10 in. In our country the practice is generally to make the depth about 6 feet, but then coffins may be placed one on the other, so that, as an actual fact, they often very closely approach the surface. The regulations followed at Stuttgard are much to be commended. In the cemeteries there the space allotted for each grave is an oblong piece of land 10 feet in length and 5 feet broad. In France the graves vary in depth from 1 1 ⁄ 4 metres (4·921 feet) to 2 metres (6·561 feet). They are 8 decimètres (2·264 feet) in breadth, and distant the one from the other from 3 to 4 decimètres (11·911 inches to 1·132 feet.)” (Blyth.) To render a cemetery therefore as little prejudicial as po ible to a community, not alone should deep burial be enforced, but only one body should be permitted to be deposited in a grave, at least, till after the lapse of some years. Some sanitary authorities recommend the use of quicklime or charcoal, advising them to be thrown into the grave previous to its being closed. Of the two, charcoal is the preferable disinfectant, although it does not entirely prevent putrefaction, nor the evolution of bad-smelling gases. No more efficient means of absorbing organic matters, and carbonic acid given off by the decaying corpse in the earth, can be devised than that of rapidly growing trees and shrubs in abundance around the graves. For the funereal cypre and yew, which are slowly growing trees, why should a needle sentiment prevent the substitution of the much more sanitary and le sombre-looking eucalyptus in countries where this plant will flourish? Old burial-grounds which have become offensive may be best disinfected by covering the ground with fresh earth to the depth of several inches, and by planting it with trees and sowing it with gra seed. Twenty-six city graveyards covering a superficial area of about 48,000 square yards, and in which, according to moderate calculation, there were not le than 48,000 tons of human remains, were succe fully dealt with in this manner. In the case of church vaults they should be first opened, a quantity of quicklime thrown into them, and thus freely exposed to the external air. The coffins should then be rearranged cro ways like bricks in a building, and filled in with dry earth or masons’ rubbish, mixed with about 5 or 10 per cent. of vegetable charcoal. The vaults should next be ventilated by means of an upcast and downcast shaft of the size of a rain-water pipe, and the whole should then be closed in. In 1860, two hundred and fifty vaults in seventy-one city churches were thus disinfected.[253] These vaults contained the coffins and remains of at least 11,000 dead bodies, which, previous to the adoption of the above measures, were very offensive. [253] When bodies are removed from the vaults to other places, Dr Letheby recommends them to be in closed coffins and in cases containing an abundant supply of carbonate of lime powder. [253] Letheby. The disposal of the dead frequently becomes a matter of considerable difficulty in time of war or during a siege. Under these circumstances cremation may be found the most desirable method of getting rid of them. If the bodies are buried they should always be at as great a distance as po ible from one another, and as deep as they can be. If procurable, charcoal should be thrown over them; if it cannot be obtained sawdust and sulphate of zinc, or carbolic acid, may be employed. Quicklime is also commonly used, but it is le useful. At Metz, in 1870, the following plan was adopted:—A pit of about 17 feet in depth was filled with dead disposed of as follows:—A row of bodies was laid side by side; above this a second row was placed, with the heads laid against the feet of the first row; the third row were placed acro , and the fourth row in the same way, but with the heads to the feet of the former; the fifth row was placed as No. 1, and so on. Between each layer of bodies about an inch of lime, in powder, was placed. From 90 to 100 bodies were thus arranged on a length of 6 1 ⁄ 2 feet, and reached to about 6 feet to the surface; the pit was then filled up with earth, and though 8400 bodies were put in that pit there were no perceptible emanations at any time. Around Metz the graves of men, horses, and cattle were disinfected with lime, charcoal, and sulphate of iron. Immense exertions were made to clean and disinfect the camps and battle fields, and in the month of May, 1871, from 1200 to 1600 labourers were employed by the Germans. Wherever practicable the ground was sown with oats or barley or gra . The hillocks formed by the graves were planted with trees. In many cases at Metz bodies were dug up by the Germans, when there was any fear of water-courses being contaminated, or if houses were near. On account of the danger to the workmen, graves containing more than six bodies were left untouched, and the work was always done under the immediate superintendence of a physician. The earth was removed carefully, but not far enough to uncover the corpse; then one end of the corpse was uncovered, and as soon as the uniform or parts of the body were seen, chloride of lime and sawdust, or charcoal and carbolic acid, put in; the whole earth round the body was thus treated, and the body at length laid bare, lifted and carried away. The second body was then treated in the same way. Near Sedan, where there were many bodies very superficially buried, burning was had recourse to. Straw mixed with pitch was put into the graves, and was lighted; one ton of pitch sufficed for from 15 to 20 bodies. Opinions as to this practice were divided, and it is not certain how many graves were thus dealt with. It seems probable that only the surface of the body was burnt, and when many bodies were together in the grave, some were not touched at all. On the whole the experiment appears to have been unsucce ful. The Belgian experience at Sedan was in favour of employing chloride of lime, nitric acid, sulphate of iron, and chlorine gas. Carbolic acid did not answer so well. The sulphate of zinc and charcoal, which Barker found so useful, was not tried. [254] [254] Parkes. Various statutes have been framed for the burial of the dead and for the management and selection of the burial-grounds. In the carrying out of these enactments the local authorities have only an indirect voice, exception being made in the case of a local government district in which the vestry determines to appoint a burial board. The vestry then has power to constitute the local board so appointed the burial board of such district or parish, and to rule that the expenses of such burial board shall be met by a rate levied on such parish, after the manner of a general district rate. Vict. 21 and 22, c. 90, s. 49, enacts that if such parish has been declared a ward for the election of members of the local board, such members are to form the burial board for the parish. By Vict. 24 and 25, c. 61, s. 21, it is enacted that a sanitary authority may provide a proper place for the reception of dead bodies, as well as for those which are to be subjected to a post-mortem examination. A sanitary authority is also empowered to make arrangements for interment. Any urban sanitary authority has the power of regulating these matters by by-laws. When once constituted a burial board, a sanitary authority has to see to the carrying out of the Burial Acts, to repair the fences of disused burial grounds, and generally to keep in proper order and regulate all burial grounds within its jurisdiction. The law enacts that the proper sanitary authority shall close any burial ground which is detrimental to the health of those living in its neighbourhood, or of persons frequenting any church; and throws upon such sanitary body the duty of providing a proper place of interment elsewhere. It may be well to know that by common law it is incumbent upon any person under whose roof a death has taken place to provide the corpse with interment. Such person may neither cast the body forth, nor carry it uncovered to the grave, but he must give it decent burial. This obligation is imposed upon public bodies as well as on private persons. Upon presentation of a certificate signed by a properly qualified medical practitioner, a justice of the peace may order, under certain circumstances, the removal of the dead body to a mortuary. Interment within the walls, or underneath the pavement or floor of any church, or other place of public worship, built in any urban district, has since August 31st, 1848, been interdicted under a penalty of £50.