ALPS

Italy, Switzerland, Austria, France, and Bavaria (46° N., 7° E.); total length, 700 m.; breadth, 30-160 m.; area, ¢. c. (1) W. Alps (Col di Tenda to into Simplon), including Maritime Alps, Cottian Alps, Dauphiné Alps, Graian Alps, chain of Mont Blanc, Pennine Alps; (2) Central Alps (Simplon to Reschen, Scheideck and Stelvio), including Bernese Alps, N. Swi Alps, Lepontine and Aduia Alps, Todi group, Rheetian Alps; (8) E. Alps (Reschen, Scheideck and Stelvio to the Semmering), including Ortler, Adamello, and Bretna groups. Limestone Alps of Bavaria, N. Tyrol and Salzburg, Central Tyrolese Alps, S. Tyrolese Alps (Dolomites), S.E. Alps (Carnic, Karawanken, and Julian Alps). Divided according to height into Fore Alps, Middle Alps, High Alps; snow-line varies from 8,900 ft. on S. side to 9,200 ft. on N.; glaciers of upper valleys descend to 4,000-5,000 peaks of Western Alps—Gran Paradiso (13,320 ft.), Mont. Blanc (15,775), Dent du Midi (10,690); of Middle Alps, Matter horn (14,775), Monte Rosa (15,- horn (13,380). Drained by Rhine and tributaries. Them, Aar, Reu , Limmat; Danube and tributaries, Iller, Lech, Isar, Inn, etc.; Po and tributaries, etc. Rhone with Arve, Isere, Durance; and smaller streams flowing to Adriatic and Ligurian Sea. Chief Pa es: Great St. Bernard, K. of Mont Blanc to Rhone; Mont Cenis, by Dora Riparia N.W. to Arc and Osere; Simplon from Maggiore to Brieg:; St. Gothard, from Ticirio to Upper Reu valley; Brenner from Adige to Innsbruck. There are railways cro ing by Col dell’ Altare; Mont Cenis, tunnel over 74% m. long, opened 1871; Simplon, two parallel tunnels, opened 1906; St. Gothard, tunnel over 914 m. long, opened 1882; Arlberg, opened 1884; Brenner, opened 1867, series of twenty seven tunnels; Semmering, opened 1853. Several non-snowy peaks have tourist railways up their slopes; the only snowy peak with one is Jungfrau. Highest (6,726) in Dauphiné, Trépalle in Ital. Fend (6,211) in Tyrolese Alps. Geology.—The geological history of the Alps is one of succe ive periods of upheaval, due to pre ure from the N. W. and S8.E., which have folded, broken up, a and in some cases overturned the strata of the earth’s crust. In the center of the range the rocks are chiefly Archean —sgnei granite, mica schist, etc.; while the outer belts contain principally fo iliferous sedimentary strata. Minerals abound in Austrian part of range, where coal, iron, lead, gold, silver, copper, and mercury are worked. Climate naturally varies with altitude. Alps may be divided according to climate into six regions. (1) At base of mountains in N. Italy are sheltered districts producing olives, which require mean temp. of 42° F. in winter, and in summer continuous heat of at least 75° F. (2) In deep valleys and farther up on sunny slopes are regions producing vines, which, require mean temp. in summer of 68° F. (3) Mountainous or.. deciduous; the region extends to about 4,000 ft. above sea-level-on northern side and sometimes to 5,500 on S.;: snow lies several months, spring and summer warmer than in. Europe (4) Sub-alpine or coniferous tree region, from 4,000 to 5,500 or 6,000 ft. above sea-level on N., to 7,000 ft. on S. (£) Alpine region, between tree limit and permanent snow. (6) Glacial region of permanent snow, where there is intense frost at night, and often temp. of 80° F. by day. Flora.—The distinctive Alpine plants drons, primulas, edelwei ; general characteristics are dwarfish woody stems, large flowers, woolly texture. Fauna includes bouquet in, marmot, chamois, white hare, fox, lynx, wild-cat, wolf, bear; vultures, eagles, ptarmigan, grouse, etc., are found. History.—Little known of early inhabitants except names of few tribes conquered by August us; various Teutonic tribes invaded and occupied districts in 5th and 6th cents., and Franks also occupied them transiently. History becomes traceable only in 10th and 11th cents., with break-up of Oarolingian empire. Struggle for Western Alps was carried on between Savoy, Dauphine, and Provence; subsequently between Savoy and France, latter ultimately obtaining whole of western slope. In central region occurred gradual establishment of Swi Confederation, 12911815,.Eastern district was connected, historically with Habsburgs, who obtained northern slope of E. Alps in 15th cent., and subsequently gained Ampezzo Valley (1517), Venetia (1797), and other districts on southern slopes; but lost Milanese and Bergamasca to Savoy in 1859, and Venetia in 1866. In 1919 the Dolomtes and Ortler were transferred to Italy. The Alps have been very thoroughly explored since the inning of the 19th cent. Previous to that Mont Blanc had been ascended, and about sixty-five glaciers were known. Jungfrau and Finsteraarhorn were conquered in 1811 and 1812 respectively; and henceforth mountaineering greatly increased, many Alpine clubs being established. i RHIN, formerly an imperial terr. of the Ger. Empire, but since the Peace of Versailles (1919) a prov. of France Alsace includes the W. half of the Rhine valley and E. half of the Vosges Mts. Lorraine, which lies N.W. of Alsace, consists of a low plateau drained by the Saar in the E., and the Moselle in the W. Cereals, potatoes, sugar-beet, flax, tobacco, hemp, fruit, and wine (3,900,000 gal.) are the principal products. Forests all state-owned, occupy 30 per cent. of total area. Fisheries are valuable. Minerals—coal, iron, salt, and_building stone—are concentrated in Lorraine. Prior to the World War Germany’s wealth of iron ore amounted to 2,800 million tons, of which Alsace-Lorraine contained 2,000 million tons. Potash deposits extremely valuable; previous powerful monopoly of this substance by Germany now at an end. Chief industries are iron smelting and founding, and the manufacture of machinery; textiles, gla , porcelain, chemicals, and paper. There are 1,320 m. of railways and a number of canals—Rhine-Marne, the Rhine-Rhone, and the coal canal of the Saar. Largest towns are Str as bourg (the cap.), Mulhouse, Metz, and Colmar. For two you sand years Alsace-Lorraine has been a hot-bed of European strife. It was occupied by the Romans for four hundred years, and by the time it was claimed by the Holy Roman Empire it had acquired the Franco German duality of language which still exists. Devastated during the Thirty Years’ War, it was restored to France (1697), but was lost to Germany in 1871. By the Peace of Versailles (1919) - ft again became French. Fighting in Alsace-Lorraine.—While the main forces were still mobilizing on either side, the French carried out a military raid into Upper Alsace a few days after the outbreak of the World War. On Aug. 7, 1914, they occupied Altkirch, 12 m. acro the frontier; on Aug. 8, Mulhouse; but German reinforcements coming up, they retired. Two days later General Pau (Alsace) and Castlenau (Lorraine) began a general offensive from Nancy to Belfort. The pa es of the Vosges were occupied; in the §. Mulhouse was retaken; and French columns were pouring down the eastern slopes almost as far as the Rhine. Saarburg was entered on the 18th, but two days later the Germans struck hard from the region of Metz, and the French left was heavily defeated and routed. The northern pa es were lost, but from the Col du Bonhomme 8. the French remained within Ger. territory. At the beginning of 1915 they were on the heights above Munster, and farther Ss. had established an advanced post on the Hartmannsweilerkopf and had taken Thann. Severe fighting developed near lost and retaken several times; but, though continued with intervals for several months, the attacks realized little succe . Both sides settled down to the routine of trench warfare, varied occasionally by raids.