Botany

Gr. bot anë, herb or gra .] That branch of natural history which relates to the vegetable kingdom; not merely including the nomenclature and cla ification of plants, as some have supposed, but embracing all the phenomena of vegetable life in their widest extent. To facilitate investigation. B. has been divided into several departments which may be regarded as separate sciences. The objects and scope of each of these sub-sciences will now be explained. -1. Structural Botany, Organography, includes everything relating to the organization of plants. It describes the different kinds of ti ue which enter into the composition of plants; it explains the structure of every organ; and it also teaches the relation that one organ bears to another. That branch of structural B. which has reference to the elementary ti ues is sometimes distinguished as Vegetable Histology. The microscope has shown that the various ti ues are composed of little membranous sacs or vesicles, varying in form and size, and united in different ways. The study of these elementary organs cannot be prosecuted without the aid of costly instruments, but much may be learned from the clear descriptions and excellent illustrations given in modern botanical works, particularly those of Lindley. Some plants consist of simple cells only, which continue throughout life to produce new cells, and to perform all the vital functions. A flowering plant, however, although originally cellular, produces organs composed of cells and ve els, variously modified and arranged, and covered by an epidermis. These compound organs may be divided into nutritive , or those concerned in the nourishment of the plant, and reproductive, or those which are employed in the production of new individuals. The former are the stem , root , and leaf ; the latter, the flowers and fruit . Leaves occupy various positions on the stem and branches, and their arrangement forms a subject for special study. The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis and its ramifications, has also to be considered. The term Morphology has been applied to that portion of Organography which treats of the abnormal modifications of the different organs. The researches which have been made in this department during the last forty years, have confirmed the doctrine advanced by the German poet Gothe, namely, that all those parts familiarly known as leaves, flowers, and fruit, are constructed on a simple uniform plan, out of one kind of organ in different states of modification and combination; and that there is no other difference between the flower of a rose and that of a nettle, than what arises from modifications and combinations of this typical organ, which is the leaf. In elucidating this doctrine of the unity of type, which constitutes the basis of the theory of botany, Lindley says: "We are Bo accustomed to talk of plants bearing leaves, and flowers, and fruit, and it is so evident to our senses that extremely different organs do exist under such names, that it seems inconceivable that parts so very di imilar should be only leaves in different states; that the pure white petals of the lily, the rich red flowers of the rose, the sweet-smelling blo oms of the jasmine and orange, or the long trumpet-shaped corollas of the honeysuckle, should all be leaves; that the stamens in which the fertilizing powder is locked up, the pistils which are destined to receive the influence of the pollen, the ovula that they contain, and, finally, that the fruit, which is the result of the action of the two last, are all so many parts formed out of one common organ, which in a particular and very frequent state is what we call a leaf. Botanists do not mean to say that he who eats an apple, or an orange, or a peach, is in a state of mental delusion, and that while he fancies himself to be enjoying the pleasure of gratifying his palate by the most delicious flavors, he is really only chewing the leaves of these plants; but they a ert that those appendages of a plant which are commonly called the leaves have a peculiar anatomical structure, and a certain relation to the stem on which they are borne, and, being developed according to certain fixed laws, are always arranged upon a certain and uniform plan with respect to each other; and that all the other organs, whether calyx, corolla, stamens, pistils, or fruit, have an anatomical structure e entially the same, bear the same relation to the axis that they grow upon, are developed according to the same laws, are arranged upon the same certain and uniform plan with respect to each other, and, finally, are constantly becoming transformed into leaves of the ordinary appearance; thus losing the condition in which they are usually found, and reverting to their structural type." Morphology is a most attractive subject for study, but le important in a practical point of view than that part of Organography which has reference to the ordinary forms of organs, and the manner in which they are arranged. No systematic arrangement can be understood without a knowledge of the laws upon which the symmetry of plants depends, and a practical acquaintance with the structure of every kind of organ. See CELL, INFLORESCENCE, OVULE, PHYLLOTAXIS, PISTIL, SEED, STAMEN, .-2. Physiological Botany treats of plants in a living or active state, and of the manner in which their functions are performed; it explains how they are influenced by the several agencies of light, heat, air, and moisture; and it describes their various secretions and the nutriment afforded by the soil. It need scarcely be said that any attempt to investigate the laws of vegetable life would be abortive without a perfect acquaintance with the more important details of organization. Plants, not being endowed with voluntary motion, derive their food either from the soil in which they are fixed, or from the atmosphere by which they are surrounded. The nutriment, consisting of water generally holding salts in solution, is absorbed by the aid of endosmose, by the extremities of the root. It then pa es from cell to cell, and ascends the stem, di olving in its course some of the organic matter stored up in the vegetable ti ue. Arrived at the green shoots and surfaces of the leaves, which are covered with minute openings, or stomata , the sap is exposed to the influence of light, heat, and air. About two-thirds of the moisture taken up is now evaporated and exhaled; the remainder, which, of course, becomes thickened, undergoes certain chemical changes, and then begins to descend by the under surface of the leaf, and along the bark. It takes either a direct or a circuitous course downward, communicating with the centre of the stem by the medullary rays, depositing various secretions, more especially in the bark, and giving origin to substances which are destined to nourish and form new ti ues. Finally it reaches the extremity of the root, where absorption had commenced; a small portion is there excreted, while the remainder mixes with the newly absorbed fluids, and again circulates in the sap. The circulation of the sap has been adduced as an example of the vital proce es elucidated by physiology, because it is due to the combined action of all the organs of nu-1 trition, and may therefore serve instead of several illustrations. The study of the special functions of the various organs nece arily precedes that of the general physiological phenomena, such as circulation, a imila tion, respiration, fertilization, and germination. Under the names of the different organs of nutrition and repгоduction, the reader of this work will find full particulars respecting their functions. The physiology of reproduction is treated of at length under the heads POLLEN, and EMBRYO. See also ENDOSMOSE, SAP, SECRETIONS, . - 3. Systematic Botany , or Tazonomy . This department includes the principles of cla ification, which are based on the observations which have been made on the structure and physiology of plants. It cannot, therefore, be prosecuted succe fully until the student has acquired a complete knowledge of Organography. The object of systematic botany is to name, describe, and arrange plants in such a manner that the botanist may readily ascertain the name of any specimen, and at the same time get an insight into its true nature and general properties. When it is considered that there are some 120,000 known species of plants, it is obvious that there must be a definite nomenclature and cla ification, wero it only to facilitate reference and communication. Before plants can be cla ified, their peculiarities of structure must be clearly defined; hence the nece ity of technical language which is employed in descriptive B. This language ought not to deter the lover of nature from studying the principles of cla ification; for in acquiring a knowledge of the numerous technical terms, he will at the same time fix in his mind the ideas which they represent, and thus, in reality, become acquainted with important elementary facts. Botanists are blamed for using so many hard words; but it should be remembered that they have to explain very minute points of structure, and must employ a language more rigorously defined than that of ordinary conversation. "Botany," says Dr. Hæfer, "would be the most lovely of the sciences, if botanists had not made its nomenclature so dry and repulsive. All the world would study it, if it was addre ed le to the memory and more to the intelligence." The remarks of Mr. Page on the use of technical terms in geology may be fairly set in opposition to the observation of the French writer:-"Scientific terms, when once thoroughly comprehended, are quite as easily remembered as those derived from the language of every-day life; while, being chiefly compounds of Greek and Latin, they constitute a nomenclature intelligible to the scholars of every country. There is nothing more perplexing than a multiplicity of local and provincial terms; and one can easily imagine the confusion and obstruction that would arise were every country and district adhering to its own vernacular, instead of adopting a uniform system of terminology. The technicalities of science, often so ignorantly inveighed against, are, in fact, the instruments by which it effects its progre . New objects require new names, and new facts, new phrases to expre their relations; and the sooner the student can make himself familiar with those terms and their applications, the more rapid and pleasant will be his onward progre ." That part of Systematic Botany which relates to the technical language of the science is sometimes called Glo ology . The principles of cla ification constitute what is properly called Taxonomy , though this term is often applied to the whole department. There have been two great plans proposed for the cla ification of plants, one de nominated artificial and the other natural . The first is founded on characters taken from certain parts of plants only without reference to others; while the second takes into account all the parts of plants, and involves the idea of affinity in e ential organs. In both artificial and natural systems, the lower divisions, namely the genera and species, are the same, the great difference between them consisting in the manner in which the genera are grouped into orders, and the orders into cla es. (See SPECIES. GENUS, ORDER, CLASS.) The plants in one of the higher divisions of an artificial system, such as that of Linnæus, have no nece ary affinity, and are connected only by certain characters, more or le superficial, which have been selected as the signs of that division. Such a system may, therefore, be compared to a dictionary, in which words are arranged, for convenience of reference, in alphabetical order, adjacent words not nece arily agreeing with each other, further than in commencing with the same letter. In a natural order, on the contrary, all the genera will be found to have a true family likene ; for their a ociation is the result of a careful consideration of the structure of every organ. The cla es in the natural system have been formed upon the same principle, by uniting orders which po e many important characters in common. The Linnæan system leads to little more than a knowledge of names, and can only be looked upon as an index to the genera. Though superior to every artificial scheme previously promulgated, its day has gone by and the more philosophical system has taken its place. Linnæus himself never intended it to be anything more than a provisional arrangement; and distinctly stated that a natural method was the great object of scientific inquiry. The general principles of the Linnæan or Sexual system may be explained in a few words. 24 cla es are founded on the number, position, relative lengths, and connection of the stamens; while the orders in these cla es depend on the number of the styles, the nature of the fruit, the number of the stamens in the cla es where this character is not used for distinguishing them, and the perfection of the flowers. The 24th cla includes plants having inconspicuous flowers, and in it the orders are formed according to natural affinities. Under these cla es and orders, all the known genera and species are arranged. Even as an artificial method for discovering the names of plants, the Linnæan system has many imperfections. Being based upon the more obvious characters of the reproductive organs, it cannot be of the least use when the plants are not in full flower, with all the stamens and styles perfect. The different flowers on the same plant often vary as regards the number of the stamens. Again, if the cla ification was carried out rigidly, it would separate, in many instances, the species of the same genus; but so sensible was Linnæus of the importance of maintaining the natural character of his genera, that he sacrificed the symmetry of scheme for the sake of keeping all the species together. The natural system of cla ification is based upon the real affinities of plants, and nece arily takes into account all the organs. Though it can never be perfect until all the plants of the globe have been examined, it has already reached a very high point of development, and a great number of the orders which have been determined are quite as natural as the orders in the animal kingdom. For example, those groups of plants designated as Ranunculaceæ, Gentian ace a, and Atropaceæ, are as distinct in their characters as those animal groups named Cetacea , Cheiroptera, and Roden tia . Such being the case, it follows that a knowledge of one species is to a great extent the knowledge of many; for an individual, if well selected, will exhibit the most important characters of all the other plants in the same natural group. Thus, by studying the common radish ( Raphanus ), or the mustard ( Sinapis ), the botanist may obtain a general knowledge of about 1,600 species, which constitute the order Bra icaceæ , and which are all formed, as it were, on the same type. The properties of plants accord, in a very remarkable manner, with their structure; and, as a general rule, the position of a plant in the natural arrangement indicates its properties. For example, if a botanist, on examining a plant, finds all the structural peculiarities of the order just mentioned, he may feel confident that it is not poisonous, but most likely antiscorbutic or pungent. If, however, he should meet with one of the Atropacer , he might safely set it down as a plant po e ing poisonous narcotic properties. Enough has been said to prove that the natural system is much more than a mere index to the names of plants. It reveals, to a certain extent, the plan of creation, and is at once an aid to research and a record of discovery. Several schemes based upon the natural affinities of plants have been devised. They may be regarded as so many versions of the one true system; for, though they have been worked out by different methods, they agree in nearly all their grand divisions. The characters by which the primary groups have been determined, are furnished by the elementary ti ues, and the most important organs of vegetation and reproduction. Regarding only the elementary structure, plants may be arranged under the heads of Cellular and Vascular , according to the absence or presence of regular ve els; (see TISSUE, CELL, VESSEL.) A more satisfactory arrangement results from a consideration of the different modes by which plants are propagated. Some spring from true seeds, containing the rudimentary organs called cotyledons; while others are developed from Spores , in which no distinct organs can be traced. The former are said to be Cotyledonous , and the latter Acotyledonous , (i. e. without cotyledons.) As the number of cotyledons forms a natural distinctive character, the first group of plants is subdivided into monocotyledonous , having one cotyledon, and dicotyle donous, having two cotyledons. The mode in which the root is produced affords characters which confirm this arrangement. The young root of an acotyledon is heterorhizal , that of a monocotyledon is endorhizal , and that of a dicotyledon exorhizal ; (see EMBRYO.) The three groups are further characterized by the stems; those of the first being acrogenous , those of the second endogen ous , and those of the third exogenous. Stemle plants are said to be thallogenous , and form a distinct section of the acotyledonous group. The venation of the leaves establishes the same great natural divisions; and similar results are obtained from a consideration of the flowers; monocotyledons and dicotyledons being phanerogamous, or flowering, and acotyledons, cryptogamous , or flowerle . The arrangement adhered to in the present work is that proposed by Lindley, in which the number of orders extends to 303. The main divisions consist of asexual , or "Flowerle plants," which include Thallogens and Acrogens; and sexual , or "Flowering plants," which include Rhizogens , Endogens , Dictyogens, Gymnogens, and Exogens. 1. THALLOGENS are Flowerle plants, whose stems and leaves are undistinguishable. They include the alliances Algales , Fungales, Lich enates, q. v. 2. ACROGENS are Flowerle plants, whose stems and leaves are distinguishable. The alliances are, Muscales , Lycopod a les , and Filicales , q. v. 3. RHIZOGENS are Flowering plants, with fructification springing from a thallus. The orders are, Bala no pho race a, Cytinacee, and Raffleciacea. 4. ENDOGENS are Flowering plants, with fructification springing from a stem, the wood of the stem youngest in the centre; the cotyledon single, and the leaves parallel-veined, permanent. The alliances are, Glumales , Arales, Palmales , Hydrales , Narc is sales, Amomales , Orchid a les, Xyridales, Juncales, Liliales , and Alisma les, q. v. 5. DICTYOGENS are like Endogens, except that the leaves are not-veined, deciduous. The wood of the stem, when perennial, is arranged in a circle with a central pith. The orders are, Dioscoreacee, Smilaceæ, Philesiacece, Trill i a cere, and Roxburghiacer. "Young Hylas, botch'd with stains too foul to name, In cradle here renews his youthful frame." - Garth. tion springs from a stem the wood of which is youngest at the circumference, always concentric; the cotyledons 2 or more; and the seeds quite naked. The orders are, -To mend, repair, or patch in a clumsy, awkward manner. Cycadeacea, Pinacea , Taxacea , and Gnetaceæ , q. v. as clothes, or anything that has undergone renovation. "Their coats, from botching newly brought, are torn."-Dryden. -To put together unsuitably or unskilfully; to expre or perform bunglingly or awkwardly. "They aim at it, And botch the words up fit to their own thoughts." - Shaks. Botch'er, n. One who botches; a bungler; a mender of old clothes, whether a tailor or cobbler. Botches left old clothes in the lurch, And fell to turn and patch the church." - Hudibras . 7. EXOGENS are like Gymnogens, except that the seeds are enclosed in seed-ve els. They are distributed into four sub-cla es: - (I.) Diclinous Exogens . - Flowers diclinous, without any customary tendency to become hermaphrodite. The alliances are, A men tales , Urtica les , Euphorbia les , Quern a les, Garrya les, Men is per males , Cu curb i tales , Papaya les , q. v. - (II.) Нуродynous Exogens. Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous; stamens entirely free from the calyx and corolla. The alliances are, Violales , Cistales, Malvales , Sap in dales , Guttiferales , Nympha les, Ranales , Berberales , Ericales, Rutales, ling. (R.) Geraniales, Silenates, Chenopod a les, Pipe rales, q.v.(III.) Peryginous Exogens . - Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous; stamens growing to the side of either the calyx or the corolla; ovary superior, or nearly so. The alliances are, Fico i dales , Daphnales, Rosales, Sax if raga les, Rhamnales, Gentian a les, Salanales, Cortusales, Echiales, Bignonia les, q. v. (IV.) Epyginous Ezogens. Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous; stamens growing to the side of either the calyx or corolla; ovary inferior, or nearly so. The alliances are, Campana les , Myrtales, Cactales, Gro a les, Cinchona les, Umbel lares, q. v., and As a rales . A brief notice of the progre of systematic B. may conclude this attempt to elucidate its leading principles. One of the earliest methodical arrangements was that of Cæsalp in us, a Roman physician attached to the court of Pope Sixtus V. This was entirely artificial; and the same may be affirmed of the several systems of Gesner, Morison, Rivinus, and Tournefort. That propounded by Tournefort was for a long time adopted by the French school, but was ultimately displaced by the attractive scheme of Linnæus, who must be looked upon as the great promulgator of the artificial method of cla ification. The first attempt at arranging plants according to their natural affinities was made by an English botanist, John Ray, in the year 1682. His scheme was nece arily very imperfect, for the number of plants then known was comparatively small; still it was in its leading features correct, and has really formed the foundation of every later system. It was long neglected, and did not receive the attention it deserved until Ju ieu entered the field, and developed Ray's views of the natural affinities in the vegetable kingdom. Ju ieu's method was first made known in the year 1789, just eleven years after the death of Linnæus. Since that time, the natural method has been advanced by the labors of De Candolle, Brown, Endlicher, Lindley, and many others.-4. Geographical Botany treats of the manner in which plants are affected by climate and station, and endeavors to determine the conditions under which particular families or species of plants are confined to certain zones of latitude and altitude. It is a study of great interest, and one which cannot be succe fully prosecuted without an intimate acquaintance with most of the sciences. Of course, so long as there are vast tracts of continents unexplored by botanical travellers, the knowledge upon which this department is founded must be imperfect. (See DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.) - 5. Fo il Botany investigates the nature of the plants found in a fo il state in the various geological formations. It is therefore at once a branch of botany and of geology. (See PALEONTOLOGY.) The practical bearings of botany are most important, and are sometimes treated separately in manuals of the science, under the head of Economic Botany. All the principal plants affording food. timber, medicine, fibres, dye-stuffs, and other useful products, are noticed in this work under the names of the genera which include them. For further details of the structure and cla ification of plants, the reader may consult with advantage Lindley's Introduction to Botany, Elements of Botany , and Vege table Kingdom, and the works of Balfour, Henfrey, Henslow, Olivir, and Asa Gray. Bot'any, in low a , a post-office of Shelby co. Bot'any Bay, a bay of New South Wales, Australia, 5 m. S. of Sydney; Lat. 34° S., Lon. 151° 15′ E. It was discovered by Capt. Cook, on his first voyage, in 1770, and named by him from the great number of new plants found in its vicinity. In 1787 it received England's first penal colony in the East; and though it was supplanted the very next year by Port Jackson, yet it long continued to be the popular designation, not merely of this penal settlement, but of the Australian convict settlements generally. the Xanthorrhœa has til is , or res in if era of Australia. Bot'any Bay Oak, n. ( Bot . ) A wood resembling in color full red mahogany, and used for veneering the backs of brushes, and for turnery, . Botar'go, n. [Sp. botarga , a sort of loose, baggy breeches; contraction of botalarga , a wide leather bag. A kind of sausage-roll, or cake, made of the roe of red mullet, and much used in Italy, Spain, ., as an appetizer. Bota'via, in low a , a post-office of Jefferson co. Botch, ( boch ,) n . [It. bozza . Of the same origin as bo .] A swelling or pustule on the skin; an eruptive discolor- ation of the epidermis. "Botches and blains must all his flesh embo ." - Milton . -That which resembles a botch; a part or patch added clumsily or unsuitably. Yet, making here a perfect botch , Thrusts your poor vowel from his notch." Swift . -Ill-finished work, so as to appear worse than the rest; a clumsy, bungled piece of mending. To leave no rubs or botches in the work." - Shaks. Botch'ery, n . Botching; clumsy workmanship, bung- Botch'y, a. Marked with botches; full of botches. "Were not that a botchy sore?" - Shaks. Bote, n. [See Boot.] ( Eng . Law .) An allowance of wood for fuel, repairs, and the like, and which every tenant for life, unle restrained by covenant or agree- ment, may, of common right, take from the land for his reasonable service, without being impeachable for committing waste. The word is generally conjoined with another to expre its nature; as bridge - bote ; which is an allowance for making or repairing a bridge; fire- bote , or house - bote , for fuel; plough - bote and cart - bote , for making and repairing implements of husbandry; hay- bote , or hedge - bote , for repairing hedges and fences, . The term bote and its compounds, however, though technically proper, have in modern times somewhat fallen out of use. Bote'le , a . Same as BOOTLESS, q . v. Bote'roll, n. ( Her .) The tag of a broadsword's scab- bard. Botetourt, ( bot'e - toort ,) in Virginia , a S.W. central co., bounded on the S.E. by the Blue Ridge. Area , 550 sq. m. Drained by James River, and also by Craig's and Catawba creeks. The celebrated Peaks of Otter rise near the confines of this co. Surface. Generally hilly. Soil . Tolerably good. Cap . Fin castle. Pop ., 14,860. Bo'tetourt Springs, in Virginia , a post-village of Botetourt co.