ARMS

and ARMOR. The former term includes any sort of offensive and (strictly, in the case of persons only) defensive weapon. Offensive weapons include arms to discharge mi iles (e.g.).’ catapults, firearms; mi iles (e.g.) spears; arms wielded by hand at close quarters for cleaving, thrusting, crushing, cutting (e.g.) axes, daggers, clubs, sabres. Arms for the purpose of defence comprise chain mail and metal plates to protect the body, head, and limbs, in addition to shields. Early races used stone weapons; those employed in the earliest (Palaolithic) times were chipped flints and celts, while in later (Neolithic) times more elaborate weapons were used, such as flint knives attached to handles. Various kinds of stone, horn, and bone were used for making weapons; spearheads and arrow points (leaf-shaped, lozenge-shaped, tanged, and triangular) were chipped in flint, and vegetable fibre and bitumen fastened heads to shafts. Flint daggers (usually 12 in. long) were various in form and size. Short, leaf-shaped daggers and curved knives, with both edges sharpened, were highest type. Sling stones and stone balls (probably used like S. American bolas) were also used. Wristlets or braces of slate seem to have been only defensive armor in Stone Age. Metal was only gradually adopted for weapons; bronze dagger apparently earliest metal weapon. A sword with a long tapering blade and a long handle was a favorite weapon of the Bronze Age. Swords of transition period between Bronze and Iron Ages—generally iron copies of leaf-shaped sword, sometimes having flat bronze handle-plate. The problem of pre-Homeric and Homeric armor is largely a matter of inference; no single type of weapon predominates. According to Homeric poems, fully armed Homeric warrior wore shield, greaves, band, belt, tunic, helmet, breastplate, sword. Hoplites of later Greece wore helmet, breast and back plates, greaves of pliant bronze, round or oval shields, and fought with pikes and short double-edged sword. The heavy armed cavalry carried lances. Intermediate were the peltasts (pelta ‘small light shield’). Equipment of Roman soldier underwent many changes. Early Roman sword was of bronze, straight blade, — double edged, obtusely cee About © i, i Polybius’ time (160 B.C.) the cavalry, originally protected by light ox-hide shield and fragile spear, adopted Gr. equipment of buckler, breastplate, and strong spear. Later the pilum (a form of javelin) became characteristic weapon of the heavy armed. Auxiliaries used the hasta and spatha. Under the Empire, heavy armed apparently had helmet, cuira , long sword and dagger, pilum and scutum. Cavalry had broadsword, buckler, long thrusting pole, and javelins. The fully armed Eng. knight (11th cent.) had helmet, hauberk, shield, sword, lance (or sometimes axe, mace, and bow). The longbow and the arbalest, or cro bow, were two of the most formidable weapons of the Middle Ages. The Eng. victories at Crécy, Poitiers, and Agin court were chiefly due to the use of the former weapon, while the French favored the latter, and it continued in use in their army until about 1530, Plate armor appeared in 14th cent. In 15th cent. surcoat and horseman’s shield tended to disappear. During trench period of the Great War breastplates, helmets, steel shields, etc., were again used. The arquebus was invented in Spain in 16th cent., and was succeeded by the musket, a clumsy weapon, fired from a rest. By various stages this developed into the rifle, and then into the modern breech-loading and magazine weapons. The bayonet attached to the rifle still remains the decisivo weapon at closc quarters. Cannon, first used by the Englisu at Crécy, have now in multifarious forms (field gun, howitzer, trench mortar, etc.) become an all-important factor in modern warfare. The Machine Gun, introduced in the second half of the 19th cent., has become a most formidable weapon, capable of developing an intense. and rapid rifle fire on a small front. Grenades, first used in the 17th cent., became obsolete in the 18th, but were reintroduced during the siege of Port Arthur, and were used everywhere in the trench warfare of the Great War. The sword is now simply a badge of rank, but the revolver is a nece ary part of every Officer’s equipment. Naval Armor, general term for the protective features of a modern warship, of which the most important part is the broadside armor, since upon this depends the safety of her engines, boilers, magazines, etc. Amongst the earliest Brit. iron warships was Warrior (1860); but for some time afterwards it was the practice to armor wooden ships with fron plates, 414 in. in thickne . This iron sheathing was subsequently increased to 6 in., 9 in., 12 in., and even 24 in. The use of steel plates was introduced by Schneider (1876), and this led } td the adoption of ‘compound armor’ (i.e.) steel surface on wrought-iron foundation plate, the combination being designed to render a projectile ineffective and yet preserve the plating intact. Compound armor was largely used from 1880-90, when further improvements were introduced (Harvey and Tresidder proce es); and the use of nickel in steel plates was introduced by Schneider (1889). Krupp’s armor for warships was first employed in 1897. The steel used in this proce has a high tensile strength, and contains nickel, chromium, and manganese. Up to close of the Great War battleships and battle-cruisers of all nations were chiefly protected along their sides, in the region of their gun positions and the station from which the ship was conned and commanded in battle—this followed a tradition fully established before enormous extension of gun range and long-distance fighting now in vogue. Nowadays side armor is of exceedingly limited value in long range action, and experience of the Great War has demonstrated that the principles hitherto followed in armoring ships are not suited to modern conditions. This does not mean that protective plating in all circumstances will in future be discarded.