CHINA

republic, Asia (18°-50° N., | 74°-134° E.); bounded N. by Siberia; E. by Korea, Yellow Sea, China Sea; 8. by Fr. Indo-China, India; W. by '‘Afghanis- — and ‘Turkestan; includes China proper, with Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, and Chin. Turkestan. Area (est.), | 4,278,352 sq. miles; pop, China proper, | 325,000,000; Greater China, 436,000,000. Greater China is traversed by two folded mountain systems which stretch from Pamir plateau. ToN.E. and N. the Tienshan extend N.E. to the Khingan | continue into Ho-nan as the Chin-ling and Fu-nie-shan, in W. Kan-su the branch is the Nan-shan, Mts. of Shanare isolated system; there are ranges; in products and numerous other climate the Kuen-lun Mts. divide N. S. China. ‘The alluvial Chinese plain in E. covers over 200,000 sq. m. high-|'The principal rivers are the Yang-tsesea which hands of foreigners, date from 1895. hin a produces much silk, but Chinese manufactures of silks and embroideries, porcelains, paper, lacquer ware, cotton, etc., carried on by manual labor; modern sugar refineries at Hong-Kong, Swatow, and Amoy; iron and steel works at Hanyang, and many flour, rice, and oil mills. Since 1842 Chin. foreign trade has steadily grown; about fifty treaty ports and twenty-five other ro open to international trade. Chief exports are silk and manufactures, beans and bean cakes, tea, cotton, skins, and _ hides, sesamum seeds, tin, etc.; imports are mainly manufactured goods, especially cotton. First railway opened 1876; today railway mileage is 6,835 and over 2,000 m. are in proce of construction. In 1913 there were 37,403 m. of telegraph wires, but the telephone had made little headway. The most populous provs. are Shangtung and Kiang-su. By the congestion in great centers, lack of sanitation and hygiene, epidemics, famines, and floods, the death-rate is very high. Over sixty races or tribes are represented in republic and dependencies, comprising Chinese, eign pop. estimated at 150,000 (1913), of whom 80,000 were Japanese, 50,000 Ru ians, 9,000 British. The religion of China is based on nature worship and ancestor worship; principal religions are Con fuci an ism (adopted as state religion in 1914), Taoism, Buddhism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity; republic shows tendency to religious om as long as ancient family customs are not interfered with. Art.—Chin, art is perhaps best known to Europe ans in its forms of hand embroidery on silk and other fabrics, and enameling on metal. Some of the jars made of cloisonne enamel are very beautiful; among others, those of blue enamel on silver may be mentioned. Painting is a very old art in China; it is largely conventional, no shadows being put in. Sculpture includes carvings on ivory, jade, wood, and other substances. Porcelain was discovered many centuries B.C., and is still made in great perfection, The most outstanding feature of Chin, arch. is the tent-like roof. Education.—Before 1905 education led to an elaborate system of examinations for state employment; since then Western methods have obtained. Peking has a uniy. and medical school; in Tien-tsin are a univ,, industrial school, medical colleges, mi ion schools. In 1911 the chief universities of England and America promoted a scheme to establish a modern unfv. in Central China. Element and secondary schools are rising all over China, and technical instruction in engineering, agriculture, etc., is advancing, while special attention is given to military education. The new Ministry of Education consists of three departments: (1) General knowledge, which supervises general educational matters; (2) special knowledge, for higher education; (3) social training, with charge of popular ceremonies and customs, museums and libraries, music, literature, drama, zoo logical and botanical gardens, public lectures, etc. The first newspaper in Chinese, Shen Pao, or Shanghai Reporter, | dates from 1870; there are now over 300 daily, weekly, and monthly journals in China. 4 | Literature—The vastne and variety of Chin. literature is seen in the works collected in 1722. The catalogue is arranged in four divisions: tho first contains works on the cla ics and dictionaries; the second, works on history; the third, works on philosophy and the arts; the fourth, works on poetry and belles-lettres. The Cla ics are the Confucian books, and a few others on which much commentary has been expended. The His tortes of China are in four cla es, according to different methods of authors. Very valuable histories of foreign countries, brought into warlike or other contact with China, are added. The Philosophy and Arts division deals with the works of the literatz; of writers on military affairs, legislation, agriculture, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics, etc,, and concludes with works of Taoism and Buddhism. The Belles Lettres division comprehends the various cla es of polite literature, poetry, and analytical or critical works. hin. pee has no epic, but is rich in ballads, yrical and descriptive pieces, rhythmical effusions and songs, eulogies and elegies, and monumental inscriptions. Government.—China became a republic in Feb. 1912; before that it was a monarchy, executive being in hands of emperor, whose rule was somewhat autocratic. There is now a National A embly, consisting of a single elective house, and a cabinet composed of ministers of state and a secretary of state. Ministries are ten in number, including those of foreign affairs, finance, education, war, navy, justice, interior, agriculture and forestry, commerce and industry, communications. China is for local administration divided into twenty-one provinces; to each prov. are a igned a supreme military and a supreme civil governor, appointed. by the president. The prov. is divided into tao or circuits, whose intendants are under the governor, and each circuit into hsien or districts, under magistrates responsible to the intendants. History By 2200 B.C. the Chinese were a civilized nation in the Yellow R. valley, whence they soon spread to the Yang-tse-Kiang and the sea. Traditional records begin with the ‘Five These were succe ively followed by the ties, of whom only the last is truly historical. Under the Chou rulers the feudal system was established, and the whole country was divided up into va al states, many of which afterwards became owerful kingdoms; in this period art and iterature attained considerable development, and the two great Chin. philosophers, Confucius and Mencius, lived and produced their works. Interstate war was almost continuous, and in 3rd cent. B.C. the va al kingdom of Tsin attained great power, ultimately deposing the Chou emperor, Nan Wang, and establishing on imperial throne the Tsin dynasty, which endured until 206 B.C., providing five rulers, of whom the most important was Tsin Shi-hwang. He consolidated his empire by abolishing feudalism and establishing a new system of government; his other principal exdi were the building of the Great Wall the northern provinces, and the attempt to burn all Chin. cla . literature. The Tsin line did not endure long after his death; rebellion broke out, and resulted in establishment of Han dynasty (202B.C.). First Han emperor was Liu Pang, who repealed the proclamation as to burning the cla ics; he a umed name Kao Ti; during his reign several invasions and rebellions occurred, which he succeeded in suppre ing. His son and succe or, Hui, died young, and in 179 B.C. Wen Ti became emperor. He instituted a le barbarous system of punishments than had previously been customary, and in his reign various invasions occurred. One of his succe ors, Wu Ti (140-86 B.C.), was a mighty warrior who enlarged empire by military conquests. i 1st to 12th Cent. A.D.—From 220 to c. 265 the country was divided into three kingdoms—a branch of the old Liu family of Han in Oze-chuen (Shuh), the Sun family 8. of the Yang-tse-Kiang (Wu), and the usurping Tsao family in the N. (Wel). In 265 the Sz-ma family established the Western Tsin dynasty in the N., consolidating the empire for short time; his succe ors were defeated by some of the northern tribes, and later the whole of the N. was conquered by the Tartars. For 200 years N. China was ruled by a Tungusic family called Toba, while 8. China was governed by pure Chinese. Finally, Yang Kien succeeded in unifying China and founded the Sui dynasty (590-618). The great Tang dynasty (618-907) ranks with the Han as one of the two mightiest of Chin. history. Under it Chin. dominions were greatly enlarged, Turks and pe ead were conquered, Korea subdued, Nepal heard for first time, and Europe ans mentioned as Fulin, Fo-lang, or ‘Franks.’ The Kitans (whence the name Cathay) formed a powerful empire with new cap. of Peking (915-1115). They were followed by the Nuchens, or Kin dynasty, who ruled succe fully until overthrown by the Mongols 1232. his succe ors, especially his grandson Kublai Khan, made short work of the Chinas and their trib. states. Their dynasty ended in 1368, when a revolution occurred which resulted in the flight of the Mongol emperor Shun Ti and the establishment of the Ming, a Chinese dynasty. Under Ming emperors learning was encouraged and sea trade developed; in 16th cent. appeared the first Port. traders. In 1627 acceded the last Ming emperor, Tsung-cheng, under whom empire became an anarchy. The Manchus, having been ap ed to for aid in panting down a rebellion, placed a Manchu prince upon the throne, and thus established the Ta-tsing line of emperors. This prince reigned as Shun-chi until 1661, when his son, Kang-hi, became em- | pret Kang-hi succeeded in con solid a this empire; he conquered Tibet and ©