WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE

In reference to textile fabrics, sheep’s wool is of two different sorts, the short and the long stapled; each of which requires different modes of manufacture in the preparation and spinning proce es, as also in the treatment of the cloth after it is woven, to fit it for the market. Each of these is, moreover, distinguished in commerce by the names of fleece wools and dead wools, according as they have been shorn at the usual annual period from the living animal, or are cut from its skin after death. The latter are comparatively harsh, weak, and incapable of imbibing the dyeing principles, more especially if the sheep has died of some malignant distemper. The annular pores, leading into the tubular cavities of the filaments, seem, in this case, to have shrunk and become obstructed. The time of year for sheep-shearing most favourable to the quality of the wool, and the comfort of the animal, is towards the end of June and beginning of July;—the period when Lord Leicester holds his celebrated rural fête for that interesting purpose. The wool of the sheep has been surprisingly improved, by its domestic culture. The mouflon ( Ovis aries ), the parent stock from which our sheep is undoubtedly derived, and which is still found in a wild state upon the mountains of Sardinia, Corsica, Barbary, Greece, and Asia Minor, has a very short and coarse fleece, more like hair than wool. When this animal is brought under the fostering care of man, the rank fibres gradually disappear; while the soft wool round their roots, little conspicuous in the wild animal, becomes singularly developed. The male most speedily undergoes this change, and continues ever afterwards to po e far more power in modifying the fleece of the offspring, than the female parent. The produce of a breed from a coarse-woolled ewe, and a fine-woolled ram, is not of a mean quality between the two, but half-way nearer that of the sire. By coupling the female thus generated, with such a male as the former, another improvement of one-half will be obtained, affording a staple three-fourths finer than that of the grandam. By proceeding inversely, the wool would be as rapidly deteriorated. It is, therefore, a matter of the first consequence in wool husbandry, to exclude from the flock all coarse-fleeced rams. Long wool is the produce of a peculiar variety of sheep, and varies in the length of its fibres from 3 to 8 inches. Such wool is not carded like cotton, but combed like flax, either by hand or appropriate machinery. Short wool is seldom longer than 3 or 4 inches; it is susceptible of carding and felting, by which proce es the filaments become first convoluted, and then densely matted together. The shorter sorts of the combing wool are used principally for hosiery, though of late years the finer kinds have been extensively worked up into merino and mou eline-de-laine fabrics. The longer wools of the Leicestershire breed are manufactured into hard yarns, for worsted pieces, such as waistcoats, carpets, bombasines, poplins, crapes, . The wool of which good broad cloth is made, should be not only shorter, but, generally speaking, finer and softer than the worsted wools, in order to fit them for the fulling proce . Some wool-sorters and wool-staplers acquire by practice great nicety of discernment in judging of wools by the touch and traction of the fingers. Two years ago, I made a series of observations upon different wools, and published the results. The filaments of the finer qualities varied in thickne from 1 ⁄ 1100 to 1 ⁄ 1500 of an inch; their structure is very curious, exhibiting, in a good achromatic microscope, at intervals of about 1 ⁄ 300 of an inch, a series of serrated rings, imbricated towards each other, like the joints of Equisetum , or rather like the scaly zones of a serpent’s skin. See Philosophy of Manufactures , figs. 11, 12., page 91. second edition. There are four distinct qualities of wool upon every sheep; the finest being upon the spine, from the neck to within 6 inches of the tail, including one-third of the breadth of the back; the second covers the flanks between the thighs and the shoulders; the third clothes the neck and the rump; and the fourth extends upon the lower part of the neck and breast down to the feet, as also upon a part of the shoulders and the thighs, to the bottom of the hind quarter. These should be torn asunder, and sorted, immediately after the shearing. The harshne of wools is dependent not solely upon the breed of the animal, or the climate, but is owing to certain peculiarities in the pasture, derived from the soil. It is known, that in sheep fed upon chalky districts, wool is apt to get coarse; but in those upon a rich loamy soil, it becomes soft and silky. The ardent sun of Spain renders the fleece of the Merino breed harsher than it is in the milder climate of Saxony. Smearing sheep with a mixture of tar and butter, is deemed favourable to the softne of their wool. All wool, in its natural state, contains a quantity of a peculiar potash-soap, secreted by the animal, called in this country the yolk ; which may be washed out by water alone, with which it forms a sort of lather. It constitutes from 25 to 50 per cent. of the wool, being most abundant in the Merino breed of sheep; and however favourable to the growth of the wool on the living animal, should be taken out soon after it is shorn, lest it injure the fibres by fermentation, and cause them to become hard and brittle. After being washed in water, somewhat more than lukewarm, the wool should be well pre ed, and carefully dried. England grows annually about 1,000,000 packs of wool, and imports 100,000 bags. Wool imported into the United Kingdom, in 1836, 64,239,977 lbs.; in 1837, 48,356,121 lbs. Retained for home consumption, in 1836, 60,724,795 lbs.; in 1837, 43,148,297 lbs. Duty received, in 1836, £ 190,075; in 1837, £ 118,519. Having premised these general observations on wool, I shall now proceed to treat of its manufacture, beginning with that of wool-combing, or THE WORSTED MANUFACTURE. In this branch of busine , a long stapled and firm fibre is required to form a smooth level yarn, little liable to shrink, curl, or felt in weaving and finishing the cloth. It must not be entangled by carding, but stretched in lines as parallel as po ible, by a suitable system of combing , manual or mechanical. When the long wool is brought into the worsted factory, it is first of all washed by men with soap and water, who are paid for their labour by the piece, and are each a isted by a boy, who receives the wool as it i ues from between the drying squeezers (see Bleaching ). The boy carries off the wool in baskets, and spreads it evenly upon the floor of the drying-room, usually an apartment over the boilers of the steam-engine, which is thus economically heated to the proper temperature. The health of the boys employed in this busine is found to be not at all injured. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1309a.png:Steel combs The wool, when properly dried, is transferred to a machine called the plucker , which is always superintended by a boy of 12 or 14 years of age, being very light work. He lays the tre es of wool pretty evenly upon the feed-apron, or table covered with an endle moving web of canvas, which, as it advances, delivers the ends of the long tufts to a pair of fluted rollers, whence it is introduced into a fanning apparatus, somewhat similar to the willow employed in the cotton manufacture , which see. The filaments are turned out, at the opposite end of this winnowing machine, straightened, cleaned, and ready for the combing operation. According to the old practice of the trade, and still for the finer descriptions of the long staple, according to the present practice, the wool is carded by hand. This is far more severe labour than any subservient to machinery, and is carried on in rooms rendered close and hot by the number of stoves requisite to heat the combs, and so enable them to render the fibres soft, flexible, and elastic. This is a task at which only robust men are engaged. They use three implements: 1. a pair of combs for each person; 2. a post, to which one of the combs can be fixed; 3. a comb-pot, or small stove for heating the teeth of the combs. Each comb is composed either of two or three rows of pointed tapering steel teeth, b , fig. 1203. , disposed in two or three parallel planes, each row being a little longer than the preceding. They are made fast at the roots to a wooden stock or head c , which is covered with horn, and has a handle d , fixed into it at right angles to the lines of the teeth. The spaces between these two or three planes of teeth, is about one-third of an inch at their bottoms, but somewhat more at their tips. The first combing, when the fibres are most entangled, is performed with the two-row toothed combs; the second or finishing combing, with the three-row toothed. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1309b.png:Post In the workshop a post is planted ( fig. 1204. ) upright, for resting the combs occasionally upon, during the operation. An iron stem g , projects from it horizontally, having its end turned up, so as to pa through a hole in the handle of the comb. Near its point of insertion into the post, there is another staple point h , which enters into the hollow end of the handle; which, between these two catches, is firmly secured to the post. The stove is a very simple affair, consisting merely of a flat iron plate, heated by fire or steam, and surmounted with a similar plate, at an interval sufficient to allow the teeth to be inserted between them at one side, which is left open, while the space between their edges, on the other sides, is closed to confine the heat. In combing the wool, the workman takes it up in tre es of about four ounces each, sprinkles it with oil, and rolls it about in his hands, to render all the filaments equally unctuous. Some harsh dry wools require one-sixteenth their weight of oil, others no more than a fortieth. He next attaches a heated comb to the post, with its teeth pointed upwards, seizes one-half of the tre of wool in his hands, throws it over the teeth, then draws it through them, and thus repeatedly: leaving a few straight filaments each time upon the comb. When the comb has in this way collected all the wool, it is placed with its points inserted into the cell of the stove, with the wool hanging down outside, exposed to the influence of the heat. The other comb, just removed in a heated state from the stove, is planted upon the post, and furnished in its turn with the remaining two-ounce tre of wool; after which it supplants the preceding at the stove. Having both combs now hot, he holds one of them with his left hand over his knee, being seated upon a low stool, and seizing the other with his right hand, he combs the wool upon the first, by introducing the teeth of one comb into the wool stuck in the other, and drawing them through it. This manipulation is skilfully repeated, till the fibres are laid truly parallel, like a flat tre of hair. It is proper to begin by combing the tips of the tre , and to advance progre ively, from the one end towards the other, till at length the combs are worked with their teeth as closely together as is po ible, without bringing them into collision. If the workman proceeded otherwise, he would be apt to rupture the filaments, or tear their ends entirely out of one of the combs. The flocks left at the end of the proce , because they are too short for the comber to grasp them in his hand, are called noyls . They are unfit for the worsted spinner, and are reserved for the coarse cloth manufacture. The wool finally drawn off from the comb, though it may form a uniform tre of straight filaments, must yet be combed again at a somewhat lower temperature, to prepare it perfectly for the spinning operation. From ten to twelve slivers are then arranged in one parcel. To relieve the workman from this laborious and not very salubrious task, has been the object of many mechanical inventions. One of these, considerably employed in this country and in France, is the invention of the late Mr. John Collier, of Paris, for which a patent was obtained in England, under the name of John Platt, of Salford, in November, 1827. It consists of two comb-wheels, about ten feet in diameter, having hollow iron spokes filled with steam, in order to keep the whole apparatus at a proper combing heat. The comb forms a circle, made fast to the periphery of the wheel, the teeth being at right angles to the plane of the wheel. The shafts of the two wheels are mounted in a strong frame of cast iron; not, however, in horizontal positions, but inclined at acute angles to the horizon, and in planes cro ing each other, so that the teeth of one circular comb sweep with a steady obliquity over the teeth of the other, in a most ingenious manner, with the effect of combing the tre es of wool hung upon them. The proper quantity of long wool, in its ordinary state, is stuck in handfuls upon the wheel, revolving slowly, by a boy, seated upon the ground at one side of the machine. Whenever the wheel is dre ed, the machine is made to revolve more rapidly, by shifting its driving-band on another pulley; and it is beautiful to observe the delicacy and precision with which it smoothes the tangled tre . When the wools are set in rapid rotation, the loose ends of the fleece, by the centrifugal force, are thrown out, in the direction of radii, upon the teeth of the other revolving comb-wheel, so as to be drawn out and made truly straight. The operation commences upon the tips of the tre es, where the wheels, by the oblique posture of their shafts, are at the greatest distance apart; but as the planes slowly approach to parallelism, the teeth enter more deeply into the wool, till they progre ively comb the whole length of its fibres. The machines being then thrown out of geer, the teeth are stript of the tre es by the hand of the attendant; the noyls , or short refuse wool, being also removed, and kept by itself. This operation being one of simple superintendence, not of handicraft effort and skill, like the old combing of long wool, is now performed by boys or girls of 13 and 14 years of age; and places in a striking point of view the influence of automatic mechanism, in so embodying dexterity and intelligence in a machine, as to render the cheap and tractable labour of children a substitute for the high-priced and often refractory exertions of workmen too prone to capricious combinations. The chief precaution to be taken with this machine, is to keep the steam-joints tight, so as not to wet the apartments, and to provide due ventilation for the operatives. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1311a.png:Worsted spinner The following machine, patented by James Noble, of Halifax, worsted-spinner, in February, 1834, deserves particular notice, as its mode of operation adapts it well also for heckling flax. In fig. 1205. the internal structure is exhibited. The frame-work a , a , supports the axle of a wheel b , b , in suitable bearings on each side. To the face of this wheel is affixed the eccentric or heart-wheel cam c , c . On the upper part of the periphery of this cam or heart-wheel, a lever d , d , bears merely by its gravity; one end of which lever is connected by a joint to the crank e . By the rotation of the crank e , it will be perceived that the lever d , will be slidden to and fro on the upper part of the periphery of the eccentric or heart-wheel cam c , the outer end of the lever d , carrying the upper or working comb or needle-points f , as it moves, performing an elliptical curve, which curve will be dependent upon the position of the heart-wheel cam c , that guides it. A movable frame g , carries a series of points h , which are to constitute the lower comb or frame of needles. Into these lower needles the rough uncombed wool is to be fed by hand, and to be drawn out and combed straight by the movements of the upper or working comb. As it is important, in order to prevent waste, that the ends of the wool should be first combed out, and that the needle-points should be made to penetrate the wool progre ively, the movable frame g , is in the first instance placed as far back as po ible; and the action of the lever d , during the whole operation, is so directed by the varying positions of the cam-wheel, as to allow the upper comb to enter at first a very little way only into the wool; but as the operation of combing goes on, the frame with the lower combs is made to advance gradually, and the relative positions of the revolving heart cam-wheel c , being also gradually changed, the upper or working needles are at length allowed to be drawn completely through the wool, for the purpose of combing out straight the whole length of its fibre. In order to give to the machine the nece ary movements, a train of toothed wheels and pinions is mounted, mostly on studs attached to the side of the frame; which train of wheels and pinions is shown by dots in the figure, to avoid confusion. The driving power, a horse or steam-engine, is communicated by a band to a rigger on the short axle i ; which axle carries a pinion, taking into one of the wheels of the train. From this wheel the crank e , that works the lever d , is driven; and also, by geer from the same pinion, the axle of the wheel b , carrying the eccentric or heart-wheel cam, is also actuated, but slower than the crank-axle. At the end of the axle of the wheel b , and cam c , a bevel pinion is affixed, which geers into a corresponding bevel pinion on the end of the lateral shaft k . The reverse end of this shaft has a worm or endle screw l , taking into a toothed wheel m ; and this last-mentioned toothed wheel geers into a rack at the under part of the frame g . It will hence be perceived, that by the movements of the train of wheels, a slow motion is given to the frame g , by which the lower needles carrying the wool are progre ively advanced as the operation goes on; and also, that by the other wheels of the train, the heart-wheel cam is made to rotate, for the purpose of giving such varying directions to the stroke of the lever which slides upon its periphery, and to the working comb, as shall cause the comb to operate gradually upon the wool as it is brought forward. The construction of the frames which hold the needles, and the manner of fixing them in the machine, present no features of importance; it is therefore unnece ary to describe them farther, than to say, that the heckles are to be heated when used for combing wool. Instead of introducing the wool to be combed into the lower needles by hand, it is sometimes fed in, by means of an endle feeding-cloth, as shown in fig. 1206. This endle cloth is distended over two rollers, which are made to revolve, for the purpose of carrying the cloth with the wool forward, by means of the endle screw and pinions. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1311b.png:Combing machines A slight variation in the machine is shown at fig. 1207. , for the purpose of combing wool of long fibre, which differs from the former only in placing the combs or needle points upon a revolving cylinder or shaft. At the end of the axle of this shaft, there is a toothed wheel, which is actuated by an endle screw upon a lateral shaft. The axle of the cylinder on which the needles are fixed, is mounted in a movable frame or carriage, in order that the points of the needles may, in the first instance, be brought to act upon the ends of the wool only, and ultimately be so advanced as to enable the whole length of the fibres to be drawn through. The progre ive advancement of this carriage, with the needle cylinder, is effected by the agency of the endle screw on the lateral shaft before mentioned. Some combing-machines reduce the wool into a continuous sliver, which is ready be first joined together, by what is called planking . These slivers are rolled up by the combers ten or twelve together, in balls called tops, each of which weighs half a pound. At the spinning-mill these are unrolled, and the slivers are laid on a long plank or trough, with the ends lapping over, in order to splice the long end of one sliver into the short end of another. The long end is that which was drawn off first from the comb, and contains the longer fibres; the short is that which comes last from the comb, and contains the shorter. The wool-comber lays all the slivers of each ball the same way, and marks the long end of each by twisting up the end of the sliver. It is a curious circumstance, that when a top or ball of slivers is unrolled and stretched out straight, they will not separate from each other without tearing and breaking, if the separation is begun at the short ends; but if they are first parted at the long ends, they will readily separate. The machine for combing long wool, for which Me rs. Don is thorpe and Rawson obtained a patent in April, 1835, has been found to work well, and therefore merits a detailed description :— IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1312.png:Long wool comber Figs. 1208-1210 enlarged (262 kB) Fig. 1208. is an elevation; fig. 1209. an end view; and fig. 1210. a plan; in which a , a , is the framing; b , the main shaft, bearing a pinion which drives the wheel and shaft c , in geer with the wheel d , on the shaft e . Upon each of the wheels c and d , there are two projections or studs f , which cause the action of the combs g , g , of which h , h , are the tables or carriages. These are capable of sliding along the upper guide rails of the framing a . Through these carriages or tables h , h , there are openings or slits, shown by dotted lines, which act as guides to the holders i , i , of the combs g , g , rendering the holders susceptible of motion at right angles to the course pursued by the tables h . The combs are retained in the holders i , i , by means of the lever handles j , j , which move upon inclined surfaces, and are made to pre on the surface of the heads of the combs g , g , so as to be retained in their places; and they are also held by studs affixed to the holders, which pa into the comb-heads. From the under side of the tables, forked projections i , i , stand out, which pa through the openings or slits formed in the tables h h ; these projections are worked from side to side by the frame k , k , which turning on the axis or shaft l , l , is caused to vibrate, or rock to and fro, by the arms m , moved by the eccentric groove n , made fast to the shaft e . The tables h , are drawn inwards, by weights suspended on cords or straps o , o , which pa over friction pulleys p , p ; whereby the weights have a constant tendency to draw the combs into the centre of the machine, as soon as it is released by the studs f , pa ing beyond the projecting arms g , on the tables. On the shaft c , a driving-tooth or catch r , is fixed, which takes into the ratchet wheel s , and propels one of its teeth at every revolution of the shaft c . This ratchet wheel turns on an axis at t ; to the ratchet the pulley v is made fast, to which the cord or band w is secured, as also to the pulley x , on the shaft y . On the shaft y , there are two other pulleys z , z , having the cords or bands A , A , made fast to them, and also to the end of the gauge-plates B , furnished with graduated steps, against which the tables h , h , are drawing at each operation of the machine. In proportion as these gauge-plates are raised, the nearer the carriages or tables h , will be able to advance to the centre of the machine, and thus permit the combs g , g , to lay hold of, and comb, additional lengths of the woolly fibres. The gauge-plates B , are guided up by the bars C , which pa through openings, slots, or guides, made in the framing a , as shown by D . To the ratchet wheel s , an inclined projection E , is made fast, which in the course of the rotation of the ratchet wheel, comes under the lever F , fixed to the shaft G , that turns in bearings H . To this shaft the levers I and J , are also fixed; I serving to throw out the click or catch K , from the ratchet wheel, by which the parts of the machine will be released, and restored to positions ready for starting again. The lever J , serves to slide the drum upon the driving shaft b , out of geer, by means of the forked handle L , when the machine is to be stopped, whenever it has finished combing a certain quantity of wool. The combs which hold the wool have a motion upwards, in order to take the wool out of the way of the combs g , g , as these are drawn into the centre of the machine; while the holding combs descend to lay the wool among the points of the combs g , g . For obtaining this upward and downward motion, the combs M , M , are placed upon the frame N , and retained there just as the combs g , g , are upon the holders i , i . The framing N is made fast to the bar or spindle O , which moves vertically through openings in the cro -head P , and the cro -framing of the machine Q ; from the top of which, there is a strap pa es over pulleys with a weight suspended to it; the cro -head being supported by the two guide-rods R , fixed to the cro -framing Q . It is by the guide-rods R , and the spindle O , that the frame N is made to move up and down; while the spindle is made to rise by the studs f , as the wheels c and d come succe ively under the studs s , on the spindle O . A quantity of wool is to be placed on each of the combs g , g , and M , M , the machine being in the position shown in fig. 1210. When the main shaft b , is set in motion, it will drive by its pinion the toothed wheel c , and therefrom the remaining parts of the machine. The first effect of the movement will be to raise the combs M , M , sufficiently high to remove the wool out of the way of the combs g , g , which will be drawn towards the centre of the machine, as soon as they are released by the studs f , pa ing the projecting arms q , on the tables h ; but the distance between the combs g , g , and the combs H , H , will depend on the height to which the gauge-plates B , have been raised. These plates are raised one step at each revolution of the shaft c ; the combs g , g , will therefore be continually approaching more nearly to the combs M , M , till the plates B , are so much raised as to permit the tables h , to approach the plates B , below the lowest step or graduation, when the machine will continue to work. Notwithstanding the plates B , continuing to rise, there being only parallel surfaces against which the tables come, the combs g , g , will succe ively come to the same position, till the inclined projection E , on the ratchet wheel s , comes under the lever F , which will stop the machine. The wool which has been combed, is then to be removed, and a fresh quantity introduced. It should be remarked, that the combs g , g , are continually moving from side to side of the machine, at the same time that they are combing out the wool. The chief object of the invention is obviously to give the above peculiar motions to the combs g , g , and M , M ; which may be applied also to combing goat-hair. For the purposes of the worsted manufacture, wool should be rendered inelastic to a considerable degree, so that its fibres may form long lines, capable of being twisted into straight level yarn. Mr. Bayliffe, of Kendal, has sought to accomplish this object, first, by introducing into the drawing machine a rapidly revolving wheel, in contact with the front drawing roller, by whose friction the filaments are heated, and at the same time deprived of their curling elasticity; secondly, by employing a movable regulating roller, by which the extent of surface on the periphery of the wheel that the lengths of wool is to act upon, may be increased or diminished at pleasure, and, consequently, the effect regulated or tempered as the quality of the wool may require; thirdly, the employment of steam in a rotatory drum, or hollow wheel, in place of the wheel first described, for the purpose of heating the wool, in the proce of drawing, in order to facilitate the operation of straightening the fibres. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1314.png:Drawing wheel These objects may be effected in several ways; that is, the machinery may be variously constructed, and still embrace the principles proposed. Fig. 1211. shows one mode:— a , is the friction wheel; b , the front drawing roller, placed in the drawing frame in the same way as usual; the larger wheel a , constituting the lower roller of the pair of front drawing rollers; c , and d , are the pair of back drawing rollers, which are actuated by geer connected to the front rollers, as in the ordinary construction of drawing machines, the front rollers moving very considerably faster than the back rollers, and, consequently, drawing or extending the fibres of the sliver of wool, as it pa es through between them; e , is a guide roller, bearing upon the periphery of the large wheel; f , is a tension roller, which pre es the fibres of the wool down upon the wheel a . Now, supposing the back rollers c and d to be turned with a given velocity, and the front roller b to be driven much faster, the effect would be, that the fibres of wool constituting the sliver, pa ing through the machine, would be considerably extended between b and d , which is precisely the effect accomplished in the ordinary drawing frame; but the wheel a , introduced into the machine in place of the lower front drawing roller, being made to revolve much faster than b , the sliver of wool extended over the upper part of its periphery from b , to the tension roller f , will be subjected to very considerable friction from the contact; and, consequently, the natural curl of the wool will be taken out, and its elasticity destroyed, which will enable the wool to proceed in a connected roving down to the spindle or flyer h , where it becomes twisted or spun into a worsted thread. In order to increase or diminish the extent to which the fibres of wool are spread over the periphery of the wheel a , a regulating roller is adapted to the machine, as shown at g , in place of the tension roller f . This regulating roller g , is mounted by its pivots in bearings on the circular arms h , shown by dots. These circular arms turn loosely upon the axle of the wheel a , and are raised or depre ed by a rack and a winch, not shown in the figure; the rack taking into teeth on the periphery of the circular arms. It will hence be perceived, that by raising the circular arms, the roller g , will be carried backward, and the fibres of wool pre ed upon the periphery of the wheel to a greater extent. On the contrary, the depre ion of the circular arms will draw the roller g , forward, and cause the wool to be acted upon by a smaller portion of the periphery of the wheel a , and consequently subject it to le friction. When it is desired to employ steam for the purpose of heating the wool, the wheel a , is formed as a hollow drum, and steam from a boiler, in any convenient situation, is conveyed through the hollow axle to the interior of the drum, which, becoming heated by that means, communicates heat also to the wool, and thereby destroys its curl and elasticity. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1315.png:Breaking-frame