TEXTILE FABRICS

The first busine of the weaver is to adapt those parts of his loom which move the warp, to the formation of the various kinds of ornamental figures which the cloth is intended to exhibit. This subject is called the draught , drawing or reading in, and the cording of looms. In every species of weaving, whether direct or cro , the whole difference of pattern or effect is produced, either by the succe ion in which the threads of warp are introduced into the heddles, or by the succe ion in which those heddles are moved in the working. The heddles being stretched between two shafts of wood, all the heddles connected by the same shafts are called a leaf; and as the operation of introducing the warp into any number of leaves is called drawing a warp, the plan of succe ion is called the draught. When this operation has been performed correctly, the next part of the weaver’s busine is to connect the different leaves with the levers or treddles by which they are to be moved, so that one or more may be raised or sunk by every treddle succe ively, as may be required to produce the peculiar pattern. These connections being made by coupling the different parts of the apparatus by cords, this operation is called the cording. In order to direct the operator in this part of his busine , especially if previously unacquainted with the particular pattern upon which he is employed, plans are drawn upon paper, specimens of which will be found in figs. 1103 , 1104. , . These plans are horizontal sections of a loom, the heddles being represented acro the paper at a , and the treddles under them, and cro ing them at right angles, at b . In figs. 1103. and 1104. they are represented as if they were distinct pieces of wood, those acro being the under shaft of each leaf of heddles, and those at the left hand the treddles. See Weaving . In actual weaving, the treddles are placed at right angles to the heddles, the sinking cords descending perpendicularly as nearly as po ible to the centre of the latter. Placing them at the left hand, therefore, is only for ready inspection, and for practical convenience. At c a few threads of warp are shown as they pa through the heddles, and the thick lines denote the leaf with which each thread is connected. Thus, in fig. 1103. , the right-hand thread, next to a , pa es through the eye of a heddle upon the back leaf, and is disconnected with all the other leaves; the next thread pa es through a heddle on the second leaf; the third, through the third leaf; the fourth, through the fourth leaf; and the fifth, through the fifth or front leaf. One set of the draught being now completed, the weaver recommences with the back leaf, and proceeds in the same succe ion again to the front. Two sets of the draught are represented in this figure , and the same succe ion, it is understood by weavers (who seldom draw more than one set), must be repeated until all the warp is included. When they proceed to apply the cords, the right-hand part of the plan at b serves as a guide. In all the plans shown by these figures, excepting one which shall be noticed, a connexion must be formed, by cording, between every leaf of heddles and every treddle; for all the leaves must either rise or sink. The raising motion is effected by coupling the leaf to one end of its correspondent top lever; the other end of this lever is tied to the long march below, and this to the treddle. The sinking connexion is carried directly from under the leaf to the treddle. To direct a weaver which of these connexions is to be formed with each treddle, a black spot is placed when a leaf is to be raised, where the leaf and treddle intersect each other upon the plan, and the sinking connexions are left blank. For example, to cord, the treddle 1, to the back leaf, put a raising cord, and to each of the other four, sinking cords; for the treddle 2, raise the second leaf, and sink the remaining four, and so of the rest; the spot always denoting the leaf or leaves to be raised. The figs. 1103. and 1104. are drawn for the purpose of rendering the general principle of this kind of plans familiar to those who have not been previously acquainted with them; but those who have been accustomed to manufacture and weave ornamented cloths, never consume time by representing either heddles or treddles as solid or distinct bodies. They content themselves with ruling a number of lines acro a piece of paper, sufficient to make the intervals between these lines represent the number of leaves required. Upon these intervals, they merely mark the succe ion of the draught, without producing every line to resemble a thread of warp. At the left hand, they draw as many lines acro the former as will afford an they place the dots, spots, or ciphers which denote the raising cords. It is also common to continue the cro lines which denote the treddle a considerable length beyond the intersections, and to mark by dots, placed diagonally in the intervals, the order or succe ion in which the treddles are to be pre ed down in weaving. The former of these modes has been adopted in the remaining figs. to 1112. ; but to save room, the latter has been avoided, and the succe ion marked by the order of the figures under the intervals which denote the treddles. Some explanation of the various kinds of fanciful cloths represented by these plans, may serve further to illustrate this subject, which is, perhaps, the most important of any connected with the manufacture of cloth, and will also enable a person who thoroughly studies them, readily to acquire a competent knowledge of the other varieties in weaving, which are boundle . Figs. 1103. and 1104. represent the draught and cording of the two varieties of tweeled cloth wrought with five leaves of heddles. The first is the regular or run tweel, which, as every leaf rises in regular succe ion, while the rest are sunk, interweaves the warp and woof only at every fifth interval, and as the succe ion is uniform, the cloth when woven, presents the appearance of parallel diagonal lines, at an angle of about 45° over the whole surface. A tweel may have the regularity of its diagonal lines broken by applying the cording as in fig. 1104. It will be observed, that in both figures the draught of the warp is precisely the same, and that the whole difference of the two plans consists in the order of placing the spots denoting the raising cords, the first being regular and succe ive, and the second alternate. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1231.png:Weaving patterns Figs. 1105. and 1106. are the regular and broken tweels which may be produced with eight leaves. This properly is the tweel denominated satin in the silk manufacture, although many webs of silk wrought with only five leaves receive that appellation. Some of the finest Florentine silks are tweeled with sixteen leaves. When the broken tweel of eight leaves is used, the effect is much superior to what which gives a much nearer resemblance to plain cloth than the others. For this reason it is preferred in weaving the finest damasks. The draught of the eight-leaf tweel differs in nothing from the others, excepting in the number of leaves. The difference of the cording in the broken tweel, will appear by inspecting the cyphers which mark the raising cords, and comparing them with those of the broken tweel of five leaves. Fig. 1107. represents the draught and cording of striped dimity of a tweel of five leaves. This is the most simple species of fanciful tweeling. It consists of ten leaves, or double the number of the common tweel. These ten leaves are moved by only five treddles, in the same manner as a common tweel. The stripe is formed by one set, of the leaves flushing the warp, and the other set, the woof. The figure represents a stripe formed by ten threads, alternately drawn through each of the two sets of leaves. In this case, the stripe and the intervals will be equally broad, and what is the stripe upon one side of the cloth, will be the interval upon the other, and vice versâ . But great variety of patterns may be introduced by drawing the warp in greater or smaller portions through either set. The tweel is of the regular kind, but may be broken by placing the cording as in fig. 1104. It will be observed that the cording-marks of the lower or front leaves are exactly the converse of the other set; for where a raising mark is placed upon one, it is marked for sinking in the other; that is to say, the mark is omitted; and all leaves which sink in the one, are marked for raising in the other: thus, one thread rises in succe ion in the back set, and four sink; but in the front set, four rise, and only one sinks. The woof, of course, pa ing over the four sunk threads, and under the raised one, in the first instance, is flushed above; but where the reverse takes place, as in the second, it is flushed below; and thus the appearance of a stripe is formed. The analogy subsisting between striped dimity and dornock, is so great, that before noticing the plan for fancy dimity, it may be proper to allude to the dornock, the plan of which is represented by fig. 1108. The draught of dornock is precisely the same in every respect with that of striped dimity. It also consists of two sets of tweeling-heddles, whether three, four, or five leaves are used for each set. The right-hand set of treddles is also corded exactly in the same way, as will appear by comparing them. But as the dimity is a continued stripe from the beginning to the end of the web, only five treddles are required to move ten leaves. The dornock being checker-work, the weaver must po e the power of reversing this at pleasure. He therefore adds five more treddles, the cording of which is exactly the reverse of the former; that is to say, the back leaves, in the former case, having one leaf raised, and four sunk, have, by working with these additional treddles, one leaf sunk and four leaves raised. The front leaves are in the same manner reversed, and the mounting is complete. So long as the weaver continues to work with either set, a stripe will be formed, as in the dimity; but when he changes his feet from one set to the other, the whole effect is reversed, and the checkers formed. The dornock pattern upon the design-paper, fig. 1108. , may be thus explained: let every square of the design represent five threads upon either set of the heddles, which are said by weavers to be once over the draught, supposing the tweel to be one of five leaves; draw three parallel lines, as under, to form two intervals, each representing one of the sets; the draught will then be as follows :— | 4 | | 1 | | 4 | | 1 | | 1 | | 4 | | 1 | | | 4 | | 4 | | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | | 4 | | 4 | | The above is exactly so much of the pattern as is there laid down, to show its appearance; but one whole range of the pattern is completed by the figure 1, nearest to the right hand upon the lower interval between the lines, and the remaining figures, nearer to the right, form the beginning of a second range or set. These are to be repeated in the same way acro the whole warp. The lower interval represents the five front leaves; the upper interval, the five back ones. The first figure 4, denotes that five threads are to be succe ively drawn upon the back leaves, and this operation repeated four times. The first figure 4, in the lower interval, expre es that the same is to be done upon the front leaves; and each figure, by its diagonal position, shows how often, and in what succe ion, five threads are to be drawn upon the leaves which the interval in which it is placed represents. Dornocks of more extensive patterns are sometimes woven with 3, 4, 5, and even 6 sets of leaves; but after the leaves exceed 15 in number, they both occupy an inconvenient space, and are very unwieldy to work. For these reasons the diaper harne is in almost every instance preferred. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1232a.png:Weaving pattern Fig. 1109. represents the draught and cording of a fanciful species of dimity, in which it will be observed that the warp is not drawn directly from the back to the front leaf, as in the former examples; but when it has arrived at either external leaf, the draught is reversed, and returns gradually to the other. The same draught is frequently used in tweeling, when it is wished that the diagonal lines should appear upon the cloth in a zigzag direction. This plan exhibits the draught and cording which will produce the pattern upon the design-paper in fig. 1103. a . Were all where the raised dots are placed, filled the same as on the design, they would produce the effect of exactly one-fourth of that pattern. This is caused by the reversing of the draught, which gives the other side reversed as on the design; and when all the treddles, from 1 to 16, have been succe ively used in the working, one-half of the pattern will become complete. The weaver then goes again over his treddles, in the reversed order of the numbers, from 17 to 30, when the other half of the pattern will be completed. From this similarity of the cording to the design, it is easy, when a design is given, to make out the draught and cording proper to work it; and when the cording is given, to see its effect upon the design. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1232b.png:Weaving pattern Fig. 1110. represents the draught of the diaper mounting, and the cording of the front leaves, which are moved by treddles. From the plan, it will appear that 5 threads are included in every mail of the harne , and that these are drawn in single threads through the front leaves. The cording forms an exception to the general rules, that when one or more leaves are raised, all the rest must be sunk; for in this instance, one leaf rises, one sinks, and three remain stationary. An additional mark, therefore, is used in this plan. The dots, as formerly, denote raising cords; the blanks, sinking cords; and where the cord is to be totally omitted, the cro marks × are placed. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1233a.png:Weaving pattern Fig. 1111. is the draught and cording of a spot whose two sides are similar, but reversed. That upon the plan forms a diamond, similar to the one drawn upon the design paper in the diagram, but smaller in size. The draught here is reversed, as in the dimity plan, and the treading is also to be reversed, after arriving at 6, to complete the diamond. Like it, too, the raising marks form one-fourth of the pattern. In weaving spots, they are commonly placed at intervals, with a portion of plain cloth between them, and in alternate rows, the spots of one row being between those of the other. But as intervals of plain cloth must take place, both by the warp and woof, 2 leaves are added for that purpose. The front, or ground leaf, includes every second thread of the whole warp; the second, or plain leaf, that part which forms the intervals by the warp. The remaining leaves form the spots; the first six being allotted to one row of spots, and the second six to the next row; where each spot is in the centre between the former. The reversed draught of the first is shown entire, and is succeeded by 12 threads of plain. One-half of the draught of the next row is then given, which is to be completed exactly like the first, and succeeded by 12 threads more of plain; when, one set of the pattern being finished, the same succe ion is to be repeated over the whole warp. As spots are formed by inserting woof of coarser dimensions than that which forms the fabric, every second thread only is allotted for the spotting. Those included in the front, or ground leaf, are represented by lines, and the spot threads between them, by marks in the intervals, as in the other plans. The treddles nece ary to work this spot are, in number, 14. Of these, the two in the centre, a , b , when pre ed alternately, will produce plain cloth; for b raises the front leaf, which includes half of the warp, and sinks all the rest; while a exactly reverses the operation. The spot-treddles on the right hand work the row contained in the first six spot-leaves; and those upon the left hand, the row contained in the second six. In working spots, one thread, or shot of spotting-woof, and two of plain, are succe ively inserted, by means of two separate shuttles. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1233b.png:Weaving pattern Di imilar spots, are those whose sides are quite different from each other. The draught only of these is represented by fig. 1112. The cording depends entirely upon the figure. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1233c.png:Parts lashed together Fig. 1113. represents any solid body composed of parts lashed together. If the darkened squares be supposed to be beams of wood, connected by cordage, they will give a precise idea of textile fabric. The beams cannot come into actual contact, because, if the lashing cords were as fine even as human hairs, they must still require space. The thickne is that of one beam and one cord; but if the cords touch each other, it may then be one beam and two cords; but it is not po ible in practical weaving to bring every thread of weft into actual contact. It may therefore be a umed, that the thickne is equal to the diameter of one thread of the warp, added to that of one yarn of the weft; and when these are equal, the thickne of the cloth is double of that diameter. Denser cloth would not be sufficiently pliant or flexible. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1233d.png:Open fabric Fig. 1114. is a representation of a section of cloth of an open fabric, where the round dots which represent the warp are placed at a considerable distance from each other. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1233e.png:Dense fabric Fig. 1115. may be supposed a plain fabric of that description which approaches the most nearly to any idea we can form of the most dense or close contact of which yarn can be made susceptible. Here the warp is supposed to be so tightly stretched in the loom as to retain entirely the parallel state, without any curvature, and the whole flexure is therefore given to the woof. This mode of weaving can never really exist; but if the warp be sufficiently strong to bear any tight stretching, and the woof be spun very soft and flexible, something very near it may be produced. This way of making cloth is well fitted for those goods which require to give considerable warmth; but they are sometimes the means of very gro fraud and imposition; for if the warp is made of very slender threads, and the woof of slackly twisted cotton or woollen yarn, where the fibrils of the stuff, being but slightly brought into contact, are rough and oozy, a great appearance of thickne and strength may be given to the eye, when the cloth is absolutely so flimsy, that it may be torn asunder as easily as a sheet of writing-paper. Many frauds of this kind are practised. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1233f.png:Sections of cloth In fig. 1116. is given a representation of the position of a fabric of cloth in section, as it is in the loom before the warp has been closed upon the woof, which still appears as a straight line. This figure may usefully illustrate the direction and ratio of contraction which must unavoidably take place in every kind of cloth, according to the density of the texture, the dimensions of the threads, and the description of the cloth. Let A , B , represent one thread of woof completely stretched by the velocity of the shuttle in pa ing between the threads of warp which are represented by the round dots 1, 2, ., and those distinguished by 8, 9, . When these threads are closed by the operation of the heddles to form the inner texture, the first tendency will be to move in the direction 1 b , 2 b , ., for those above, and in that of 8 a , 9 a , ., for those below; but the contraction for A , B , by its deviation from a straight to a curved line, in consequence of the compre ion of the warp threads 1 b , 2 b , ., and 1 a , 2 a , ., in closing, will produce, by the action of the two powers at right angles to each other, the oblique or diagonal direction denoted by the lines 1, 8-2, 9, to the left, for the threads above, and that expre ed by the lines 2, 8-3, 9, ., to the right, for the threads below. to be placed at the middle of the cloth, equidistant from the two extremities, or selvages as they are called by weavers, the thread at 1 may be supposed to move really in the direction 1 b , and all the others to approach to it in the directions represented, whilst those to the right would approach in the same ratio, but the line of approximation would be inverted. Fig. 1117. represents that common fabric used for lawns, muslins, and the middle kind of goods, the excellence of which neither consists in the greatest strength, nor in the greatest transparency. It is entirely a medium between fig. 1114. and fig. 1115. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1234a.png:Section of cloth In the efforts to give great strength and thickne to cloth, it will be obvious that the common mode of weaving, by constant intersection of warp and woof, although it may be perhaps the best which can be devised for the former, presents invincible obstructions to the latter, beyond a certain limit. To remedy this, two modes of weaving are in common use, which, while they add to the power of compre ing a great quantity of materials in a small compa , po e the additional advantage of affording much facility for adding ornament to the superficies of the fabric. The first of these is double cloth, or two webs woven together, and joined by the operation. This is chiefly used for carpets; and its geometrical principles are entirely the same as those of plain cloth, supposing the webs to be sewed together. A section of the cloth will be found in fig. 1118. See Carpet . IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1234b.png:Tweeled fabric Of the simplest kind of tweeled fabrics, a section is given in fig. 1119. The great and prominent advantage of the tweeled fabric, in point of texture, arises from the facility with which a very great quantity of materials may be put closely together. In the figure, the warp is represented by the dots in the same straight line as in the plain fabrics; but if we consider the direction and ratio of contraction, upon principles similar to those laid down in the explanation given of fig. 1116. , we shall readily discover the very different way in which the tweeled fabric is affected. When the dotted lines are drawn at a , b , c , d , their direction of contraction, instead of being upon every second or alternate thread, is only upon every fifth thread, and the natural tendency would consequently be, to bring the whole into the form represented by the lines and dotted circles at a , b , c , d . In point, then, of thickne , from the upper to the under superficies, it is evident that the whole fabric has increased in the ratio of nearly three to one. On the other hand, it will appear, that four threads or cylinders being thus put together in one solid ma , might be supposed only one thread, or like the strands of a rope before it is twisted; but, to remedy this, the thread being shifted every time, the whole forms a body in which much aggregate matter is compre ed; but where, being le firmly united, the acce ion of strength acquired by the accumulation of materials is partially counteracted by the want of equal firmne of junction. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1234c.png:Tweeled fabric The second quality of the tweeled fabric, susceptibility of receiving ornament , arises from its capability of being inverted at pleasure, as in fig. 1120. In this figure we have, as before, four threads, and one alternately intersected; but here the four threads marked 1 and 2 are under the woof, while those marked 3 and 4 are above. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1234d.png:Tweeled fabric Fig. 1121. represents that kind of tweeled work which produces an ornamental effect, and adds even to the strength of a fabric, in so far as accumulation of matter can be considered in that light. The figure represents a piece of velvet cut in section, and of that kind which, being woven upon a tweeled ground, is known by the name of Genoa velvet. 1st. Because, by combining a great quantity of material in a small compa , they afford great warmth. 2nd. From the great resistance which they oppose to external friction, they are very durable. And, 3rd. Because, from the very nature of the texture, they afford the finest means of rich ornamental decoration. The use of velvet cloths in cold weather is a sufficient proof of the truth of the first. The manufacture of plush, corduroy, and other stuffs for the dre of those exposed to the accidents of laborious employment, evinces the second; and the ornamented velvets and Will on carpeting, are demonstrative of the third of these positions. In the figure , the diagonal form which both the warp and woof of cloth a ume, is very apparent from the smallne of the scale. Besides what this adds to the strength of the cloth, the flushed part, which appears interwoven at the darkly shaded intervals 1, 2, ., forms, when finished, the whole covering or upper surface. The principle, in so far as regards texture, is entirely the same as any other tweeled fabric. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1235a.png:Corduroy Fig. 1122. , which represents corduroy, or king’s cord, is merely striped velvet. The principle is the same, and the figure shows that the one is a copy of the other. The remaining figures represent those kinds of work which are of the most flimsy and open description of texture; those in which neither strength, warmth, nor durability are much required, and of which openne and transparency are the chief recommendations. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1235b.png:Common gauze Fig. 1123. represents common gauze, or linau , a substance very much used for various purposes. The e ential difference between this description of cloth and all others, consists in the warp being turned or twisted like a rope during the operation of weaving, and hence it bears a considerable analogy to lace . The twining of gauze is not continued in the same direction, but is alternately from right to left, and vice versâ , between every intersection of the woof. The fabric of gauze is always open, flimsy, and transparent; but, from the turning of the warp, it po e es an uncommon degree of strength and tenacity in proportion to the quantity of material which it contains. This quality, together with the transparency of the fabric, renders it peculiarly adapted for ornamental purposes of various kinds, particularly for flowering or figuring, either in the loom; or by the needle. In the warp of gauze; there arises a much greater degree of contraction during The twisting between every intersection of weft amounts precisely to one complete revolution of both threads; hence this difference exists between this and every other species of weaving, namely, that the one thread of warp is always above the woof, and the contiguous thread is always below. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1235c.png:Catgut Fig. 1124. represents a section of another species of twisted cloth, which is known by the name of catgut, and which differs from the gauze only, by being subjected to a greater degree of twine in weaving; for in place of one revolution between each intersection, a revolution and a half is always given; and thus the warp is alternately above and below, as in other kinds of weaving. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1235d.png:Whip-net Fig. 1125. is a superficial representation of the most simple kind of ornamental network produced in the loom. It is called a whip-net by weavers, who use the term whip for any substance interwoven in cloth for ornamental purposes, when it is distinct from the ground of the fabric. In this, the difference is merely in the cro ing of the warp; for it is very evident that the cro ings at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, are of different threads from those at 6, 7, 8, and 9. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1235e.png:Mail-net Fig. 1126. represents, superficially, what is called the mail-net, and is merely a combination of common gauze and the whip-net in the same fabric. The gauze here being in the same direction as the dotted line in the former figure, the whole fabric is evidently a continued succe ion of right-angled triangles, of which the woof forms the basis, the gauze part the perpendiculars, and the whip part the hypothenuses. The contraction here being very different, it is nece ary that the gauze and whip parts should be stretched upon separate beams. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1236a.png:Woven bird In order to design ornamental figures upon cloths, the lines which are drawn from the top to the bottom of the paper may be supposed to represent the warp; and those drawn acro , the woof of the web; any number of threads being supposed to be included between every two lines. The paper thus forms a double scale, by which, in the first instance, the size and form of the pattern may be determined with great precision; and the whole subsequent operations of the weaver regulated, both in mounting and working his loom. To enable the projector of a new pattern to judge properly of its effects, when transferred from the paper to the cloth, it will be e entially nece ary that he should bear constantly in his view the comparative scale of magnitude which the design will bear in each, regulating his ideas always by square or superficial measurement. Thus, in the large design, fig. 1127. , representing a bird perched upon the branch of a tree, it will be proper, in the first place, to count the number of spaces from the point of the bill to the extremity of the tail; and to render this the more easy, it is to be observed that every tenth line is drawn considerably bolder than the others. This number in the design is 135 spaces. Counting again, from the stem of the branch to the upper part of the bird’s head, he will find 76 spaces. Between these spaces, therefore, the whole superficial measure of the pattern is contained. By the measure of the paper, this may be easily tried with a pair of compa es, and will be found to be nearly 6 5 ⁄ 10 inches in length, by 3 3 ⁄ 16 inches in breadth. Now, if this is to be woven in a reed containing 800 intervals in 37 inches, and if every interval contains five threads, supposed to be contained between every two parallel lines, the length will be 6·24 inches, and the breadth 3·52 inches nearly; so that the figure upon the cloth would be very nearly of the same dimensions as that upon the paper; but if a 1200 reed were used, instead of an 800, the dimensions would be proportionally contracted. A correct idea being formed of the design, the weaver may proceed to mount his loom according to the pattern; and this is done by two persons, one of whom takes from the design the instructions nece ary for the other to follow in tying his cords. IMG:4147767755307473660_illo1236b.png:Table linen and handkerchief Fig. 1128. is a representation of the most simple species of table-linen, which is merely an imitation of checker-work of various sizes; and is known in Scotland, where the manufacture is chiefly practised, by the name of Dornock. When a pattern is formed upon tweeled cloth, by reversing the flushing, the two sides of the fabric being di imilar, one may be supposed to be represented by the black marks, and the other by the part of the figure which is left uncoloured. For such a pattern as this, two sets of common tweel-heddles, moved in the ordinary way, by a double succe ion of heddles, are sufficient. The other part of fig. 1128. is a design of that intermediate kind of ornamental work which is called diaper, and which partakes partly of the nature of the dornock, and partly of that of the damask and tapestry. The principle upon which all these descriptions of goods are woven is entirely the same, and the only difference is in the extent of the design, and the means by which it is executed. Fig. 1129. is a design for a border of a handkerchief or napkin, which may be executed either in the manner of damask, or as the spotting is practised in the lighter fabrics. THE NARD’S BLUE, or COBALT BLUE, is prepared by digesting the oxide of cobalt used in the potteries, with nitric acid, evaporating the nitrate almost to dryne , diluting it with water, and filtering, to separate some arseniate of iron, which usually precipitates. The clear liquor is to be poured into a solution of phosphate of soda, whence an insoluble phosphate of cobalt falls. This being well washed, is to be intimately mixed in its soft state with eight times its weight of well-washed gelatinous alumina, which has been obtained by pouring a solution of alum into water of ammonia in exce . The uniformly coloured paste is to be spread upon plates, dried in a stove, then bruised dry in a mortar, enclosed in a crucible, and subjected to a cherry-red heat for half an hour. On taking out the crucible, and letting it cool, the fine blue pigment is to be removed into a bottle, which is to be stoppered till used. The arseniate of cobalt may be substituted, in the above proce , for the phosphate, but it must be mixed with sixteen times its weight of the washed gelatinous alumina. The arseniate is procured by pouring the dilute nitrate of cobalt into a solution of arseniate of pota a. If nitrate of cobalt be mixed with the alumina, and the mixture be treated as above described, a blue pigment will also be obtained, but paler than the preceding, showing that the colour consists e entially of alumina stained with oxide of cobalt.