Deforest

a. To clear of forests; to remove forests, by cutting down or otherwise destroying. (Opposed to afforest.) Deform'ities in Organisms. ( Biol .) These are variations in the form of a body as a whole, or in one or more of its parts, and embrace three groups: the here ditary, the congenital , and the acquired . In the hereditary group there is a marked tendency for the deformity to recur in the line of descent, as in cases where extra fingers and toes reappear through a number of generations. Preservation of variations of this character is a feature of the Darwin i an law of heredity; if of value in the struggle for existence, the variation may maintain itself indefinitely and replace the former condition. Variations which have no such value are apt to disappear after a few generations, and, if sufficiently marked to be considered such, may be cla ed as hereditary deformities. Congenital deformities are more frequent and usually more marked in character, probably due to disturbing influences that affect the germ or embryo of what would otherwise prove a normal organism. They arise from defective or from perverted development. In the case of arrested development, if the whole body is affected, a dwarf is produced; if only individual parts or organs, there may be a great variety of local lack or partial development of limbs or organs, causing malformation of special regions of the body. In case the local arrest of development is complete, whole organs being absent, what is known as a monstrosity appears. Thus, the creature may be destitute of a brain ( anencephalia ), a skull ( a crania ), a lower jaw ( agnathia ), all the limbs (amelus), or one or more of them ( mono brach i us , monopus). In the case of perverted development there may be a welding together of two normally distinct parts. Thus, in the "siren-monster," the lower limbs are welded into a single tapering extremity. The causes of these deformities are little known, though recent experiments with eggs and germs show that they can be artificially produced. Thus, by varying the temperature of the hatching apparatus and varnishing the egg-shells, Panum produced deformities in chicks. A similar result occurred when the egg was kept in a vertical position; while by varnishing the whole egg, except a Y-shaped streak on one side, Gerlash produced a double-bodied chicken. More recent experiments with the reproductive germs of invertebrate organisms have yielded a great variety of deformed organisms, and certain types of monstrosities can be produced at will. In the human subject a great variety of malformations are on record. In the case of the "siren-monster," in which the lower limbs are fused, di ection shows that the full double set of bones may be present, though much distorted in position. In the "Cyclops" there is a similar fusion of the eyes, an irregular organ of vision occupying the center of the face. Arrest of size may yield dwarfs of harmonious development, yet le than half the normal height, or it may be confined to a single limb. On the other hand there are cases of exce ive development, yielding giants at times more than eight feet in height. Such dwarfs or giants commonly produce normal offspring. Exce ive development may also appear locally, yielding perhaps, a finger or toe of such enormous size as to need removal. Again, distortion may arise from partial paralysis at an early stage of development, yielding club foot, club hand, .; and natural fi ures of the embryo which should close during development may remain open, as in harelip, cleft palate and the like. Duplication of parts may take many forms, from exce of fingers and toes, to a double-headed or a double-bodied monster, reaching its ultimate in two complete but connected organisms, as in the Siamese twins and various other differently connected examples. As regards acquired deformities, these arise as the result of disease or injury at any time after birth, and may be due to such injuries as burns, fractures or dislocations, and such diseases as rickets, leprosy, and rheumatic affections. There are also "trade deformities," the result of malformations arising from the pursuit of some injurious industry. Degeneration in Organisms. ( Biol .) Degeneration is a term applied of late years to cases in which the principle of evolution seems to work backward, the animal or plant descending to a lower stage of existence, or some of its organs losing their full function and becoming atrophied, abortive, and simplified in structure. These changes do not belong to the cla of Deformities ( q.v. ), but are true evolutionary results, arising in the gradual way of evolutionary changes generally, and yielding results of advantage to the organism, or dispensing with organs that have become usele , as the eyes in cave animals. In these cases the adult animal may become structurally below the level of its young or larval stages. For instance, the Tunicates show a progre ive development until they gain swimming powers, with gill slits and a notochord. Then the larva settles into a fixed habitat, loses its tail and notochord, becomes twisted into a loop, while the gills change into a sieve-like sac. Again, a crustacean whose larval state displays a fully developed eye, may lose this organ in the mature form if confined to a dark habitat. There are many parasitic crustaceans in which similar degeneration appears, the swimming and other organs of the larva being lost, and the creature becoming simplified in structure and fixed in habitat. Thus, in the parasitic Entomostraca the swimming larvæ resemble those of other crustaceans, but after they become attached to other animals they develop into worm-like forms which are little more than food-sucking and reproductive organisms. The barnacles present a degeneration of a somewhat different kind. In all these cases the embryo starts out as if destined to progre into a regular instance of its cla of organism; then its development is checked and it descends into a simpler form, in accordance with the demands of its new habitat and mode of life. This degeneration has arisen gradually, from change in mode of life and the consequent usele ne of some organs and the development of new and useful ones. Thus, when a crustacean became a parasite on some other animal, its legs became usele , and gradually atrophied and disappeared, while the mouth parts changed in form and became organs adapted to sucking the mucus or the body fluids of its host. Degeneration must thus be distinguished from reversion to an ancestral type ( Atavism ), or occasional abortion, though gradual abortion is a characteristic feature of the proce of degeneration. It may be due to the influences of a new environment, to ce ation of function in some organ, or to some constitutional cause of a le evident kind. Absence of certain kinds of food, of heat, light, .. may withdraw the stimulus nece ary for the growth of the organs, or a superfluity of some special food may cause a variation in the general mode of food-getting and cause one group of organs to preponderate over others. Sluggishne , or lo of activity, as in the change from an active to a fixed state, may cause the slow degeneration of organs that are no longer employed. Degeneration is not confined to animals, but many examples of it appear in plants. It is shown in those plants that have a umed a dependent habit, as in parasites and saprophytes, in which the vegetative organs of the plants, not being needed, have atrophied. Thus in the dodder the leaves have degenerated and the stem has become weak and brittle, not needing strength for self-support. In the fungi numerous instances of degeneration appear, in some of them the vegetative functions having largely vanished, while those of reproduction aro greatly developed. In the flowering plants also there are many instances of degeneration in the floral organs. DeGiers', NICHOLAS CARLOVITCH, Ru ian diplomat. born May 9 (O. S.), 1820; educated at the Imperial Lyceum, and at eighteen entered the Asiatic Department of Foreign Affairs. Was amba ador to Persia (1863), and subsequently to Berne and Stockholm. He was made minister of Foreign Affairs in April, 1882. His policy as regarded the conflict between Ru ia and Great Britain in Asia, made him prominent, and he long took a leading part in the foreign affairs of Ru ia. Died Jan. 26, 1895. Degrees', College. Originally the degree was simply a certificate that the person holding it was qualified as a teacher of college cla es. The med iæval universities had the four faculties of arts, law, medicine and theology, and each of these faculties i ued its own special degrees. Those were the baccalaureate, the licen. tiate and the doctorate the first, however, not conferring the privilege of public teaching. Each degree геquired an examination in certain prescribed subjects, and a fixed term of university study. The earliest degree known was that of master, which seems to have been followed by that of doctor, at the University of Bologna, in the 12th century. In England the degree of doctor was first given about 1207. In time the term master became confined to the teacher in the university faculty of arts, while that of doctor was employed in the other three faculties. In Paris, at the close of the 15th century, the terms of study requisite to obtain a teacher's degree in the four faculties were: in arts, four years; in law, seven; in medicine, eight; and in theology, fourteen. In modern universities and colleges the meaning of degrees has differed. A degree in arts now signifies simply a certain measure of proficiency in the subjects taught; but in the case of law, medicine, and theology, which are considered the higher faculties, the degree of doctor permits its holder to engage in these respective profe ions. A four years' course of collegiate study is now usually sufficient to obtain the degree of bachelor, while that of master requires a further period of graduate study. In German universities the degree of doctor, regarded as the highest distinction, is the only one given, except in theological colleges, which confer that of licentiate also. Of late years certain universities have been founded which do not demand a full course of university study, but confer degrees upon persons who pa examinations in certain prescribed subjects. A further departure from the old system is in the conferring of what are called "honorary" degrees. These are given to persons who have distinguished themselves in spheres of life connected with the line of study for which the degree exists. Thus, the degree of Doctor of Laws has been conferred on eminent scholars, soldiers and even merchants, who have also achieved eminence in the lines of work properly contemplated by the degree LL.D. Degrees have even been obtained, in not a few instances, by purchase, or on such easy conditions that their significance is quite lost. The Pope has long held the privilege of conferring degrees upon whom he pleases, but in Protestant countries the right of conferring degrees can be granted only by the State. At the present time the range of degrees granted is greatly extended over that of the past. The degree of Doctor is given in dentistry, civil-engineering, and other special branches of study, while outside of profe ional courses the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ranks as the highest distinction. A person may now become bachelor, master or doctor of music, science, or almost any special branch of study. This is particularly the case in the U. S. In Germany the right of conferring degrees is restricted to 21 universities, and in Great Britain to a much smaller number, while in the U. S. there are not le than 300 colleges and universities which exercise this function. De Haas ( hüz ), MAURICE FREDERICK HENDRICK, artist, born in Rotter dam, Holland, in 1832. Studied with Louis Myer and other eminent artists. His specialty was marine painting, in which he became distinguished, receiving in 1871 the appointment of artist to the Dutch Navy. In 1857 he came to the U. S., settling in New York. His pictures are noted for their truth to nature. Farragut Pa ing the Forts is one of his best works. Died in New York, Nov. 23, 1895.