Porcelain

In this brief summary of the history of the ceramic art, we have as yet confined ourselves to the history of pottery, as distinguished from the much finer ware known as porcelain. This terun originated in Italy, being derived from por cell an a, the cowrie shell, whose polished surface is similar in appearance to the white, glazed surface of porcelain. There are two varieties of this ware, one being soft, or artificial porcelain, the pâte tendre of the French, which is of the character of a chemical compound and is wholly fusible at a high temperature. The second, hard porcelain, the French pâte dure, is composed of natural mineral substances and is infusible. The Oriental porcelain, from which that of Europe and America was derived, is made of two substances, kaolin, an infusible white clay, and petuntse, a fusible mixture of felspar and quartz, to whose presence is due the semi-fused, translucent appearance of the ware.- China. The world owes the discovery of porcelain to the Chinese, who were manufacturing this fine material while the Greeks were decorating their terra-cotta vases, and claim to have been producing it as early as 2690 B. C. However that be, true porcelain was certainly made in China several centuries before the Christian era, and the art, with many developments and improvements, has continued to flourish until the present day. About 580, A. D., the city of King-te-chin, in the province of Kiang-si, became a center of the industry, and this city in the early 18th century po e ed no le than 3,000 furnaces. It was ruined and its supremacy brought to an end by the Tai-ping rebellion. Chinese porcelain is endle in variety, alike of form and painted design, mythical animals, domestic fowls and other birds being favorite subjects. Of the older Chinese porcelain, that most in request is the old blue ware which led the Dutch to the manufacture of Delft. Ruby glazed ware and rich chromatic splashed glazes are also highly prized. The soft sea-green glazed ware, known as Celadon glaze, is looked upon as the oldest extant form of Chinese porcelain, and po eses a high value in collections. Crackle ware is a peculiar product of the Chinese potters. The glaze shows signs of separation from the body of the ware, cracks, large or small, being produced in it by some secret art of the Chinese. Japan. The Chinese porcelain manufacture made its way to Japan as early, we are told, as 27, B. C. In the 13th century it was much developed by a Japanese potter who studied the art in China. The Japanese excel in the manufacture of egg-shell porcelain, so-called from its extreme thinne . Kaga ware, a favorite form, is ornamented by painting in a rich ruby color, usually lavishly gilt. The chrysanthemum is a favorite flower with their artists, and the crane and other birds, and figures of warriors and ladies are effectively introduced. The skill of Japanese potters is shown, however, more distinctively in their pottery than in their porcelain, their most famous productions being the Satsuma ware. This is of a pale yellowish color, covered with minute crackles in the glaze, and richly painted and lavishly gilded. The potters of Japan are remarkably skillful in finishing the surface of pottery, which in their hands is made to closely imitate other substances, such as wood of various kinds, basket work, .- Persia. The porcelain of China made its way to Persia as early as the 12th century and the art was practiced in that country, pottery and a kind of soft porcelain being made in imitation of Chinese originals. The Persians also produced pottery and enamelled tiles of original character, in which, on a fine white enameled glaze, brilliant metallic lustres were effectively employed.European Porcelain. The first recorded appearance of Chinese porcelain in Europe is in 1487, when a piece was presented to Lorenzo de Medici, by the Sultan of Egypt. It was afterwards imported abundantly by the Cerat'odus, n. (Ichthy.) The mud-fish of Queensland, one of the remarkable sub-cla of double-breathing fish known as the Dipnoi . There are few existing examples of the Dipnoi , the only known ones being Ceratodus, Lepidosiren, and Prot opter us , all designated as mud-fishes. They were much more numerous in past geological ages. C. belonged to a genus existing in Tria ic and Jura ic times, of which only certain tooth-plates are now preserved. C. was discovered in 1870, being known locally under the name of Barra munda . It is occasionally 6 feet long, its body being compre ed laterally and covered with large scales, while its limbs differ from the usual fish fin in having a central jointed axis and lateral pieces. It lives in muddy water which often contains much vegetable matter, a medium interfering with gill respiration, for which reason it often comes to the surface and gulps air into the swim-bladder, which does duty as a lung, and is greatly developed for this purpose. C. eats leaves and twigs of plants, leaving the water occasionally at night and moving along the river bank. In the dry season it buries itself in the mud, where it hibernates until the rains return. Its flesh is much esteemed, and is said to resemble that of salmon. Cerebra'tion, Unconscious. (Psychol.) doctrine entertained by Carpenter, Laylock, and others, who hold that changes in the ti ues of the cerebrum, similar to those which accompany conscious thought, may take place during unconscious periods, producing mental results of which we become conscious only when completed. The experience is common that when one has sought in vain to recall some name or incident, it will suddenly flash into the mind when it is engaged in quite a different train of thought. Carpenter maintains that the thought proce set in action during consciousne goes on automatically and unconsciously, until the proce es nece ary to recall the name or incident are completed. It is thought, therefore, that the mind may undergo modifications unconsciously, which in time yield conscious results. Cerebro-Spinal Fluid. ( Anat .) A clear, almost colorle , slightly alkaline fluid, resembling lymph in composition, though with le albumin, which occupies various spaces in the brain, these spaces communicating with the lymphatics of the head and nerves and the venous sinuses in the dura mater. It acts to remove waste matter, and to equalize the pre ure within the skull. As the brain atrophies, this fluid increases. In some diseases, such as hydrocephalus, it is greatly increased, and then causes atrophy of the brain. Cer'esine. [From Lat. cera , wax.] ( Chem .) A product employed in the manufacture of candles, and obtained from ozocerite or fo il wax. Ce'reus, n. ( Bot . ) A plant of the genus Cactacese . The most remarkable species is the C. gigantens, found in New Mexico and Arizona, which often attains a height of 60 feet. Many flower only at night, as the C. grand i flor us , otherwise known as the night blooming C. Cesno'la, LUIGI PALMA, COUNT DI, an Italian archæologist, b. of an old Piedmontese family, near Turin, 1832. After serving in the war of Italian independence, he joined the U. S. Army in 1861, and was made colonel of the 4th N. Y. Cavalry, distinguishing himself by his unwavering gallantry in the field. After the close of the war he became a naturalized citizen and was appointed U. S. Consul at Cyprus. While on that island he resided at Larnaka, the chief seaport, built on the site of the necropolis of the Chittim of the Phoenicians. Learning of the existence of ancient coins and pieces of terra-cotta ware which had been found in the vicinity, he resolved to excavate at Dali, 20 m. N. W. of Larnaka, the site of the necropolis of Idalium, a city which flourished 2,000 years ago, and where had been erected a temple to the Cyprian Venus. Obtaining permi ion from the Turkish authorities, C. labored for three years at a great expense in making researches into the tombs of the old Italian people, and succeeded in forming quite a magnificent and unique collection of ancient statues, lamps, vases, coins, bronzes, . This collection he offered for sale in London, in 1872, when it was bought for the Metropolitan Museum of New York. Among the remains thus acquired is a colo al statue found at Golgos, 28 feet in height, wearing the A yrian head-gear, and supposed to date from 1800 B. C. Besides the set here were statues of the Greek, Roman, and Egyptian types; vases of every material, size, and shape; bronze figures, amulets, bracelets, rings, and toilet articles of various kinds; implements of war and the chase; intaglios, cameos, and inscribed gems; and a unique collection of gla ware. The collection of coins, of great value, was unfortunately lost in the pa age from Beyrout to England. Altogether the C. collection is one of almost unrivalled rarity and interest. Ceteway'o, a noted Zulu chief, son of Panda and nephew of Chaka, who in 1812 reorganized the Zulu nation. He succeeded his father in 1872, and ruled with vigor and independence. He was finally driven into war with the British, which resulted disastrously in his capture in 1879. He was kept in captivity for several years, but restored to his kingdom in 1882, after a visit to England, where he was much lionized. He became involved in war with other powerful South African chieftains, and died in 1884. Chad'bourne, PAUL ANSEL, LL.D., was born at North Berwick, Me., Oct. 21, 1823. He received his education at Williams College, and was also a student at the Hartford Theological Seminary. He held the profe orship of Chemistry and Natural History in Williams, and afterwards in Bowdoin College. The University of Wisconsin elected him President and also appointed him Profe or of Metaphysics. He is the anthor of Natural Theology and Instinct in Animals and Men. He accepted the presidency of Williams College in 1872, and of Ma achusetts Agricultural College in 1882. Died in New York city, Feb. 23, 1883. Chad'ron, in Nebraska , a city, cap. of Dawes co., in the N. W. section of the State. Is an important cattle shipping point. Pop . (1897) about 2,500. Chadwick, GEORGE W., musician, was born at Lowell, Ma ., in 1854. He studied in Leipzig under Jada ohn and Reineke, and subsequently under Rheinberger and and Abel. The highest honors were awarded his Rip Van Winkle overture, which he composed while a student. He is best known as a composer of orchestral scores. The music for the Columbian Ode, sung at the dedication ceremonies of the World's Fair in Chicago, was composed by him. Chadwick, JOHN WHITE, A. M., Unitarian minister, was born in Marble head, Ma ., Oct. 19, 1840. He was educated at Exeter Academy and Harvard University, graduating at the Divinity School, 1864. His first pas to rate was that of the Second Unitarian Church in Brooklyn, N. Y., a charge which he still held in 1897. He has made many contributions to the daily pre , and is the author of Way , Truth and Life ; The Bible of To-day; The Faith of Reason, and numerous other works. A select volume of his sermons has been translated into German under the title Religion ohne Dogma. Chain-pump, n. ( Hydraulics .) A device consisting of an endle chain, bearing transverse disks, pa ing over two wheels and working in a tube or channel having an internal diameter nearly coinciding with the diameter of the disks. Challemel-Lacour, PAUL AMAND, a French statesman and publicist, born at Avranches, May 19, 1827; he graduated from the Normal School at Paris in 1846, and soon after his ardent republicanism caused his banishment from France. On his return in 1859 he became editor of the Revue Moderne . His ability as a debater and orator won him distinction and he received several public appointments, finally becoming, in 1883, Minister of Foreign Affairs in the ministry of Ferry. He was chief editor of Gambetta's organ, the République Fran çaise , and edited the works of Madame Epinay. Among other works, he is the author of La Philosophie Individual i ste. Died Oct. 26, 1896. Challenger Expedition. ( Hydrog . ) An oceanic scientific expedition sent out by the British government in 1872-76, for the purpose of sounding and dredging the depths, mapping the basins and determining the physical and biological conditions of the Atlantic, Pacific and Southern oceanic areas. Two similar expeditions, on a limited scale, had preceded it, that of the Lightning in 1868, and that of the Porcupine in 1870. The Challenger , a corvette of 2,306 tons, was furnished with every available scientific appliance for investigating the upper and under sea waters, and was in charge of a naval surveying staff under Capt. Nares and a scientific staff under Prof. Wyville Thomson. The expedition continued for three years and a half, during which it cruised over 68,900 nautical miles and made investigations at 362 stations, examining in each the depth, the temperatures of the bottom, surface and mid-sea, the currents and fauna, and the meteorological conditions. The stations extended throughout the Atlantic and Pacific, the deepest sounding, 4,575 fathoms, being between Japan and the Admiralty Islands. Only two recorded soundings surpa this, the greatest oceanic depth yet reached being about 30,000 ft. The dredging operations brought up great numbers of previously unknown animals, many of them of curious and extraordinary organization, which have been fully described in scientific monographs. The results of the expedition have been described in 37 quarto volumes, 2 of which are devoted to a narrative of the voyage, 30 to zoölogy, 2 to botany, and 3 to physics and chemistry. Chamber of Commerce. ( Com .) An a ociation of merchants for the promotion of the commercial interests of the city or district embraced. These a ociations are usually incorporated, and employ themselves in urging the adoption of measures likely to benefit trade, collecting and publishing commercial statistics, petitioning legislatures to pa desired measures, and in other work likely to prove beneficial. A C. of C. may form a department of a board of trade, or the two terms may be used to signify similar organizations, as in many parts of the U. S. The oldest C. of C. was formed at Marseilles, France, about the beginning of the 15th century, but was not fuily organized till 1650. Various others were established in France early in the 18th century. These were suppre ed by the National A embly in 1791, but were reëstablished in 1802, since when they have been but little disturbed. Glasgow, in 1783, organized the first C. of C. in Great Britain, which was followed by that of Edinburgh in 1785. Many others followed; but that of London, the most important of all, was not established until 1882. An a ociation of C. of C. was founded in the United Kingdom in 1860, and has proved very useful in advancing the commercial interests of the kingdom. In the U. S. the New York C. of C., founded in 1768, was the pioneer in this field. It received a royal charter in 1770, and was reorganized and received a State charter in 1784. Its membership at present is 1,000. The Boston C. of C. followed that of New York, and many others have since been organized, frequently under the title of Board of Trade, though differing only in name. See BOARD OF TRADE. Chamberlain, JOSEPH, M.P., K.B., was born in London in 1836. He was educated at University College School. His advanced radical opinions and his talent as a speaker brought him into prominent notice. In 1874 he was elected mayor of Birmingham, and was returned to Parliament in 1876, and reëlected in 1880. He was president of the Board of Trade in Mr. Gladstone's cabinet in 1880, and also of the Local Government Board under the same minister in 1886. He was commi ioner to the conference at Washington for the settlement of the fisheries question between the U. S. and Canada in 1887. Held the office of Secretary of State for the Colonies in Salisbury's cabinet of 1895. ration of his term as Governor he became president of Bowdoin College, which position he still holds (1897). Chamberlain, THOMAS CHROWDER, Ph.D., LL.D., geologist and educator, was born near Mattoon, Ill., Sept. 25, 1843. He received his education at Beloit College and the University of Michigan. C. has been profe or of Geology in Beloit College, president of the University of Wisconsin, dean of Scientific Faculty of University of Chicago, and was made chief geologist of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin. In 1882 he accepted charge of the glacial division of the U. S. Geological Survey. Among his papers are The Terminal Moraine of the Second Glacial Epoch, The Rock Scorings of the Great Ice Invasion , . Cham'berlin Observatory. A gift of Mr. H. B. Chamber lin to the University of Denver. It po e es a 20-inch refracting telescope, and is located some six miles from the city, on a hill about 5,000 feet above sea-level, and therefore 800 feet higher than the Lick Observatory on Mt. Hamilton, California. Champ fleury, the a umed name of JULES FLEURY HUSSON, French author, who was born at Lavn, Sept. 10, 1821. He engaged in the profe ion of journalist, and for years produced reviews, stories, . Among the best of his stories is Contes Vieux et Nouveaux Contes d'été, . His satirical picture of French provincial life, Les Bourgeois de Mol in chart, is thought to be his most notable work. Champ fleury had charge of the collections of the porcelain manufactory at Sèvres, and wrote several books upon the history of pottery. Died Nov. 6, 1879. Champ'lin, JAMES TIFFT, D.D., clergyman and teacher, born in Col chester, Conn., June 9, 1811. He graduated with honors at Brown University in 1834, and for the three succeeding years held a position as instructor in that college. In the College of Waterville, Maine, he was appointed profe or of languages, and afterwards president, which position he held during 1851-52. His works include Demosthenes on the Crown; First Principles of Ethics ; A Text Book of Political Economy ; also Intellectual Philosophy , . Chan'dler, CHARLES FREDERICK, M.D., LL.D., was born in Lancaster, Ma ., Dec. 6, 1836; was educated in the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard College, at Göttingen, and Berlin. He received the degree of doctor of philosophy in Göttingen. The profe orship of chemistry was held by him in a number of American colleges. In 1865 he became chemist of the Metropolitan Board of Health, New York, and subsequently president of the board. He has been elected a member of the Chemical Societies of Berlin, of London, and of Paris, and in 1874 of the National Academy of Sciences; also published with his brother, Prof. W. H. Chandler, the American Chemist , a monthly journal. He is the author of a number of papers on chemical subjects, most of which have appeared in the publication just named. Chandler, WILLIAM E., lawyer and Republican politician, was born at Concord, N. H., Dec. 28, 1835; graduated at Harvard Law School in 1855, with the degree of LL.B., and was admitted to the bar. Was reporter of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire, 18591865; a member of the Legislature, and twice its Speaker, 1862-64; was Judge-Advocate-General for the U. S. Navy, 1865, and shortly thereafter A istant Secretary of the Treasury; became Secretary of the Navy in 1882, and U. S. Senator 1887-1901. Chandler, ZACHARIAH, was born at Bristol, N. H., Dec. 10, 1813. He was educated in the public schools. Subsequently removed to Detroit, Michigan, engaged in trade, and was very succe ful. Several public offices were held by him. In 1851, he was elected mayor of Detroit, and was sent in 1857 to the U. S. Senate, where he remained continuously until his appointment to be Secretary of the Interior, under Grant (1874-77); in 1876 was president of the Republican National Committee. Died in Chicago, Nov 1, 1879. Chandler, in Oklahoma , the cap. of Lincoln co. Pop . (1897) abt. 600. Channel Tun'nel, ( Engin .) A proposed tunnel under the channel dividing England and France, for which experimental borings have been made. This tunnel would be 23 miles long, and would traverse for its whole length the chalk strata, which form both shore lines and extend beneath the sea. This bed is 65 per cent. chalk and 35 per cent. clay, and is therefore impervious to water. You sands of soundings have been made, and there seems no doubt that the chalk is continuous between the two countries. The experimental works on the English side had in 1888 gone down to a depth of 950 feet, at the foot of Shakespeare's Cliff, near Dover, and extended 2,200 feet under the sea. On the French side an equal amount of work had been done. The purpose of the tunnel was for a railway between the two countries, but work on it was stopped by the British government for fear that it would too greatly expose England to invasion from the Continent. This prohibition still continues. Chan'ning, EDWARD TYRREL, scholar and educator, born at Newport, R. I., 1790, became, in 1815, one of the founders of the North American Review , and afterwards its editor. From 1819 till 1851 he occupied the chair of rhetoric and oratory in Harvard University. Died 1856. Channing, WALTER C., physician, brother of the foregoing, born in 1786, graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, and after completing his studies at Edinburgh, commenced practice at Boston, 1812. In 1815 he was appointed profe or of obstetrics and medical jurisprudence at Harvard. Died 1856. Chanpore ( shahn - poor '), a town of British India, N.W. Provinces, district Bijnour, 80 miles N.E. of Delhi. Chanute', in Kansas , a city of Neosho co., 125 m. S. of Kansas City, in an agricultural region. Pop . (1897) abt. 3,500. Chanzy ( shahn'ze ), AUGUSTE, a French general, born at Noccart, dep. Ardennes, 1823; left the Military School in 1848 as sub-lieutenant of zouaves. He served in Algeria, took part in all expeditions in that colony, became colonel in 1864, and general of brigade in 1868. Summoned from Tlemcen to France on the outbreak of the Franco-German war, he was appointed general of division, Oct. 21, 1870, and commander-in-chief of the 2d Army of the Loire on December 6. The most trustworthy details of this, the most remarkable period of his eventful career, are given in a work published by himself at Paris in 1871, under the title of La Deuxième Armée de la Loire. Elected a Senator, 1875. Died January 4, 1883. Chap'man, NATHANIEL, an eminent American physician, born in Fairfax co., Va., 1780, graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1800. In 1813 he took the chair of Materia Medica, and in 1816 that of the Theory and Practice of Medicine, in the University of Pennsylvania. He also filled the post of president of the American Philosophical Society from 1846 till the year of his death, 1853. Elements of Therapeutics and Materia Medica is his chief published work. Char bon roux ( shar - bon -roo'). [Fr.] ( Chem .) Charcoal prepared below a red heat, by which means it retains a considerable portion of oxygen and hydrogen. Ordinary charcoal contains 90 per cent. of carbon; while C. contains only 70 per cent., the remainder being oxygen and hydrogen. Gunpowder made with this charcoal appears to inflame with greater energy than that made with ordinary charcoal. On theoretical grounds, however, it appears to be inferior to ordinary powder. Charity Organizations. ( Sociol . ) A combination of the various societies for administering relief in cities, so as to prevent duplication of charity and avert imposture. The first a ociation of this kind was the London Society for Organizing Charitable Relief and Repre ing Mendicancy, popularly known as the Charity Organization Society. This began its work in 1869, and has proved so useful and effective in action that nearly 100 such societies now exist in British cities and perhaps as many more in Europe and the British colonies. It was first introduced into the U. S. in 1873, by Rev. Charles G. Ames, in German town, a suburb of Philadelphia. This was followed in 1878 by the Buffalo Charity Organization Society, and in a few years by societies in several other cities. At present there are societies of this character in all the leading and many of the smaller cities of the U. S., organized under various names, but all with the same object in view. They have been brought into close affiliation by the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, which holds annual meetings; while they are in touch with all similar institutions in the world, perhaps 300 in number. The utility of these organizations is great. Under the former individual system the societies had no knowledge of what each other was doing, overlapped one another in their work, encouraged deceit, fostered indolence and mendicancy, and had the effect of increasing the evils which they were endeavoring to cure. Under the present system each knows what the others are doing and to what persons or families they are giving aid-the C. O. being a sort of clearing-house where full information concerning the demands and the relief afforded in the city involved may be had, and appeals by the same individuals to numerous societies prevented. The С. О. also seeks to repre mendicancy, to give no alms without a previous investigation of the case, to restore the self respect of the poor, and, as far as po ible, to make them earn the aid they receive. This idea of lifting the degraded to higher social relations finds expre ion in such institutions as neighborhood guilds, college and university settlements, Toynbee halls, Hull houses, And over houses, friendly visits, and similar means of awakening a feeling of sympathy between the well-to-do and the poor. C. O. has greatly advanced the work of relieving poverty, and must in time to come, as a result of advanced experience, grow still more efficacious in this direction. Charles, ELIZABETH RUNDLE, an English writer, was born about 1826. She was married to Mr. Andrew P. Charles, of London. Her stories are historical and have been widely read. Her first novel, the Chronicles of the Schönberg - Cotta Family , (1863) gave a vivid sketch of the life of Luther; the Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevelyan, (1864) portrays the origin of Methodism in England. Her Early Dawn, The Draytons and Davenants, and On both sides of the Sea , belong to the list of her historical works. She has published various religious books, one of her most valuable being the Voice of Christian Life in Song. Charles I. (CHARLES EITEL FREDERICK ZEPHIRIN LOUIS), Prince, Domnu or Prince-regnant of the Danubian Principalities, or United Principalities of Wall a chia and Moldavia, was born April 20, 1839, being the second son of Prince Hohenzollern-Sig mar in gen, head of the second of the non-reigning branches of the princely house of Hohenzollern. He was elected and proclaimed Prince-regnant of Roumania, with hereditary succe ion, by a plebiscite taken April 8-20, 1866, and definitely recognized on Oct. 24 in that year by the Sublime Porte and the guaranteeing Powers. The Prince had previously been a sub-lieutenant in the 2d regiment of Pru ian dragoons, and it is believed that his candidature for the throne of Roumania, which had become vacant by the expulsion of Prince Alexander John, was proposed by Pru ia, and supported by her diplomatic action. His reign has been marked throughout by internal di ensions and parliamentary crises. The unwarrantable persecution of the Jews in Moldavia has often elicited indignant protests from various foreign governments. The representatives of the people, a embled at Bucharest, proclaimed Roumania's independence from Turkey, May, 21, 1877, which was confirmed by Art. 43 of the Congre of Berlin, 1878. Charles I. (CHARLES FREDERICK ALEXANDER), King of Würtemberg, was born 1823, and succeeded to the throne on June 25, 1864. He followed the policy of his father on the Schleswig-Holstein question, and formed one of the Minor States party in the Diet. His Majesty, who was colonel of a Ru ian regiment of dragoons, married, July 13, 1846, the Grand Duche Olga Nicolaiewna, daughter of Nicholas I., of Ru ia. He much contributed in making King William of Pru ia emperor of Germany. Died in 1891, and was succeeded by his son, as William II. Charles Mix, in South Dakota , a S. E. county, having an undulating surface and fertile soil; produces wheat, corn, flax, oats, barley, . Pop . (1890) 3,689. Cap . Wheeler Charlton, in Georgia , a S. E. co., largely occupied by the Okefinokee swamp and pine forests. Products are tar and turpentine, with some cotton, corn, . Pop . (1890) 3,335. Cap . Trader's Hill. Chase, PLINY EARLE, educator, was born in Worcester, Ma ., Aug. 18, 1820, graduated at Harvard in 1839. For many years he held a position as teacher in Philadelphia, during which time, and that of his subsequent mercantile life, he employed his leisure in metaphysical, philological, and physical studies, and became the author of many able and learned papers, published in various scientific journals, thus achieving fame as a scientist. The profe orship of Physics, and later of Languages, was given him at Harvard. For his Numerical Relations of Gravity and Magnetism the Magellanic Gold Medal of the American Philosophical Society was awarded him. Died at Haver ford, Pa., Dec. 17, 1886. Chase, WILL AM HENRY, was born in Ma achusetts, in 1798. He was a graduate of the U. S. Military Academy and rapidly rose from his first appointment of brevet second-lieutenant of engineers to that of major, and was a igned the defence of the ports of the Gulf coast. He afterwards, as senior engineer officer, had charge of all the works of fortification and river and harbor improvements of the mouth of the Mi i ippi. During the Civil War his interests were with the South, and he took an active part in the seizure of the Pensacola Navy-yard, but subsequently was not engaged in the war. Died at Pensacola, Fla., Feb. 8, 1870. Chase, WILLIAM MERRITT, artist, was born in Franklin county, Ind., Nov. 1, 1849. He was a pupil of L. E. Wilmarth, New York, and of Wagner and Piloty, Munich. He has been elected a member of several American societies of artists, and president of the Society of American Artists. His painting, Ready for a Ride, is in the Union this educational work. The system of education comprises two divisions. One of these is Home Reading and Study, in which each course requires about ten hours per week for ten months, controlled by correspondence with the instructors, who are all college profe ors. The examinations are conducted by the University of the State of New York. The average number of readers at any one time is about 40,000, who pursue a definite four-year course in history, literature, science, ., specified books being chosen for their reading. The second division is Summer Work, which is pursued during the annual meetings at Chautauqua, there being schools covering several departments of learning and an annual attendance of from 1,000 to 1,500. The Chautauqua A embly Grounds, situated on the northern shore of Chautauqua Lake ( q . v .), comprise about 165 acres, on which are erected over 500 summer cottages, a hotel, a museum of archæology, an amphitheatre with seats for over 5,000 people, several meeting halls, and other appliances for combining instruction with entertainment. "Chautauquas," on the general plan of the original, have been established in various parts of the United States. Chauvenet ( shov'n - a ), WILLIAM, an eminent American mathematician, born 1821; graduated at Yal College in 1840, and became Profe or of Mathematics in the U. S. Naval Academy, and afterwards in the Washington University of Mi ouri, and the University of St. Louis (1868). His Manual of Special and Practical Astronomy (1863) is a work held in high estimation. Died 1870. Cheese Poisoning. ( Path .) A disease caused by a crystalline ptomaine which sometimes occurs in degenerated milk products, such as cheese, ice cream, . It first came prominently to public notice in 1883, when. some 300 persons connected with the University of Michigan suffered from this disease after having eaten cheese containing this poisonous substance, which was then named tyro toxic on ( q . v.) by Prof. Vaughan of University mentioned above, Cheese, Ripening of. When the cheeses, after going through the various proce es of manufacture, are finally taken from the pre , they are insipid and, to most persons, unpalatable, being only ma es of compre ed curd. To gain its proper flavor and other characteristics the C. needs to be kept for a period varying from several weeks to a number of months, during which it pa es through a proce called curing, or ripening. A decided flavor is thus gained, which grows stronger the longer the C. is kept. The casein regains its solubility during this proce and fermentations take place, differing in different cheeses, and giving to each its characteristic flavor and name. The acidity of the curd gradually diminishes, and usually in time disappears. There is also considerable lo of weight, the shrinkage having been known to reach 10 per cent. within 5 weeks after the completion of the manufacture. It is now known that this ripening proce is due to the action of micro-organisms. H. W. Conn, of the U. S. League Club, New York. The Munich and Paris Expo-Department of Agriculture, was the first (in 1875) to sitions awarded him their second-cla medals. C. is one of the chief instructors in the Art Students' League, New York. Chasidim (chase-dim). (Heb.. Pietists.] A name given collectively to a whole cla of Jewish sects, but, more strictly, it is applied to a modern sect which sprang up in Poland towards the middle of last century. Chasidim and Zakiaım were the names employed to designate the two great divisions of the Jewish people which arose after the Babylonish captivity; the former being in favor of certain innovations in the law of Moses, the latter being for a strict adherence to the law as it stood. From the former arose all those sects that receive traditions and explanations in addition to the law of Moses, as the Pharisees; to the latter belong the Sadducees, E enes, . Of the modern sect of C., the founder was one Israel Baalsham, a Jewish rabbi. He gave himself out as having the true knowledge of the sacred name, through which he was endowed with miraculous powers and could grant to all believers forgivene for their sins. He speedily obtained many followers, and at the time of his death, in 1760, he is said to have had 40,000 converts. This sect is very numerous in Poland, Hungary, the Danubian principalities, and in Turkey. Chattahoochee, in Georgia , a W. county, bordering on Alabama; area , 250 sq. m.; surface diversified. Cap . Cu eta. Pop . (1890) 4,902. Chat'tel Mortgage. ( Law .) A mortgage given for money loaned on the security of chattels, such as furniture or any property of a personal or movable character. Chat'terton's Compound. ( Chem .) A resinous and pitchy mixture, designed for making the insulator of submarine cables. It is laid on in alternate layers with gutta-perch a. Chautauqua A embly. ( Educ .) An a ociation holding annual meetings at Chautauqua Lake, N. Y., and engaged in a system of education which extends throughout and beyond the United States. This a ociation was founded in 1874 by John H. Vincent, D. D., and Lewis Miller to provide systematic instruction for Sunday-school teachers, and to give courses of popular lectures in literature, art and science. In 1878 was organized the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, whose purpose was "to direct the reading habits of grown people," and whose system comprehended a four years' course of home reading and study, under the supervision of the officers of the institution, who i ued diplomas to those who satisfactorily completed the course. To Dr. W. R. Harper, now President of Chicago University, much credit is due for the development of find bacteria in C., the species observed by him being bacterium lactis , but he failed to connect the ripening with the presence of these organisms, which was done by Duclaux, in 1877, who studied closely the ripening proce , and showed that it consisted e entially in the transformation of the insoluble casein into soluble albuminoids, several ferments appearing during the proce . In 1880 he made a study of the bacteria of C., which he found to comprise several species, and very many individuals. Several gases, including carbonic acid, hydrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen, appeared as results of the proce , together with numerous products of decomposition, such as alcohol, oxalic acid, leucine, tyrosine, . He suggested that certain species of the bacteria produced ferments similar to those produced in stomach digestion, a statement which has since been confirmed. Others now took up this study, of whom Shaffer prevented the growth of bacteria by a stream of carbolic acid, and found that the C. would not ripen. Benecke, in 1887, concluded that bacillus substitis was the organism concerned in the ripening proce , while Duclaux, in the same year, annour.ced that he had found seven species of aërobic and three of anaëobic organisms present in the cheeses examined by him, all of which he thought played some part in the proce . The ripening mainly consisted in the transformation of the casein, the aerobic organisms acting at the surface, and the others in the interior, so that the ripening affected the whole C. In 1889, Adametz proved that the ripening was due to bacteria, by the employment of a disinfecting agent which prevented their growth while not affecting the chemical character of the C. Under these circumstances ripening did not take place. He found that a gramme of cheese contained from 850,000 to 5,600,000 organisms, which gradually increased during the ripening, which his experiments indicated was due to a single species-not bacillus substitus , as supposed by Benecke, but one not yet named. Others have reached similar results, and the study of the normal ripening of cheese now rests at this point. As for the abnormal ripening, a serious difficulty with which the cheese-maker has to contend, little is known. In spite of all precautions, cheeses are apt to pursue an abnormal development and yield a worthle product. So far as experiment has gone, this is due to the action of deleterious bacteria which have infected the C., yielding black C., bitter C., C. with red spots, and other troublesome results. It has been found that milk infected with certain bacteria, not normally present, yields a worthle C., but we cannot yet determine how far abnormal ripening is due to different species of organisms acting in the curd, and how far to different conditions of ripen ing. The presence of bacteria in the C. is inevitable, since the milk always contains them. As inclosed in the C., the conditions are not favorable for their rapid growth, its density and lack of moisture preventing. This is the cause of slowne in ripening, the bacteria increasing and spreading very slowly. Thus, while the value of the C. as a food lies in its casein and its fat, its market value is due to the flavor, which it owes to the work of micro-organisms. Cheha'lis, in Washington , a W. county, bordering on the Pacific Ocean; area , about 1,550 sq. m. It is intersected by the Chehalis river and also drained by the Satrop, Hoquinn, North, Wynonchee and Wishkah rivers. Surface, diversified. Cap . Montes a no. Pop . (1897) about 10,500. Chelmsford, LORD FREDERICK AUGUST US, British general; born May 31, 1827. Educated at Eton; entered the army as ensign in the Grenadier Guards in 1845; 'served in the Crimea, receiving rapid promotion, and in 1878 was appointed to command the British troops in South Africa. He was made general in 1888; and in 1884 lieutenant of the Tower of London. Che'ney, CHARLES EDWARD, D.D., clergyman; was born at Canandaigua, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1836; was educated at Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y., and pursued his studies at the Theological Seminary of Virginia. He held a number of pastorates, but was finally deposed from the priesthood of the Protestant Episcopal Church for his refusal to yield to the authority of Bishop White house, who wished him to retain the word "regenerate" in the baptismal offices. His trial for this offence was a noted one. He was subsequently consecrated as a bishop of the Reformed Episcopal Church, by the Rev. Dr. Cummins, remaining, however, in charge of Christ (R. E.) Church, Chicago. Cherbuliez, VICTOR, French novelist, was born July 19, 1829. His romances include: Comte Kostia ; Paule Meré; Le Roman d'une honnéte femme; Ladislas Bolski , . He has also written a work on Men and Things of the Present Time , and some studies in Spanish and German politics. He was made a member of the French Academy in 1882. Cherry vale, in Kansas , a city of Montgomery co., 156 m. S. W. of Kansas City. Is in a farming district. Pop. (1890) 2,104. Ches'ter, JOSEPH LEMUEL, LL.D., D. C. L., an American author and antiquary, was born at Norwich, Conn., April 30, 1821. He resided for some years in Philadelphia. In 1858 he went to London, where he subsequently resided. While pursuing his researches as an antiquary he made investigations of the records of the genealogy of John Rogers and Washington. The former he has given to the world in a' work entitled John Rogers, the Compiler of the First Authorized English Bible, the Pioneer of the English Reformation , with his Writings and a Genealogy of his Family. His Registers of Westminster Abbey was dedicated to Queen Victoria. The merits of this last named work have been acknowledged by the highest authority. Chester town, in Maryland , a town, cap. of Kent co.. on Chester river, 30 m. E. of Baltimore. Washington College is located here. Pop . (1890) 2,632. Chestnut, n. (U. S. slang.) A worn-out joke, or any saying that has become stale through frequent repetition; in allusion to a worm-eaten chestnut. Cheval-vapeur'. [Fr., horse-power.] ( Mech .) The French unit by which the rates of work a machine is capable of are compared. One such unit represents the work performed in raising 75 kilogrammes through one metre in a second. It is nearly equivalent, therefore, to the English "horse-power," the latter being 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, and the former nearly 32,500 foot-pounds per minute. Chevy Chase ( chèv'e chās). ( Eng . Lit. ) The name of one of the most famous of the old English ballads, narrating a hostile encounter that took place on the Scottish border between the two warlike families of Percy and Douglas. Percy, Earl of North umber land, had vowed to hunt for three days in the Scottish border without condescending to ask leave from Earl Douglas. He had with him 1,500 men, and Douglas brought against them 2,000. In the middle of the contest the two earls meet hand to hand. After fighting for some time, Douglas is pierced to the heart by an English arrow, and Percy immediately after falls by a Scottish spear. Although the leaders are thus both slain, the battle still rages with great fury, till only 53 of the English and 55 of the Scottish remain. The event referred to in the ballad, though apparently different from the battle of Otter bourn, which took place in 1388, is probably the same, or, at least, the tragical circumstances attending the latter have been incorporated in it. The beauties of this ballad have been criticised by Add is on, in the Spectator (Nos. 70 and 74); and Sir Philip Sidney said of it, that he never heard the old song of Percy and Douglas but his heart was more moved than by a trumpet. There are two versions of this ballad, an ancient and a more modern, both of which are given in Percy's Rdiques of Ancient English Poetry. Chevy Chase, a beautiful suburb of Washington, D. C., about six miles N.W. of that city and connected therewith by an electric railway. Here are many fine residences, hotels, club-houses,, . and the scenery is delightful. Cheyenne (shi- en '), in Nebraska, a W. co., having fertile soil well adopted for grazing. Pop . (1890) 5,693. Cap. Sidney. Cheyenne, in Oklahoma , a town, the capital of Roger Mills co. Pop . (1897) about 300. Cheyne, THOMAS KELLY, D.D., exegetical scholar and author; was born in London, Sept. 18, 1811. He re ceived his education at Merchant Taylor's school, and at Worcester College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1864, and became a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. In 1868 he became a fellow of Baliol College, and Bampton lecturer in 1889. Author of numerous works on biblical subjects, and contributed largely to the Encyclopædia Britannica . In 1889 he delivered the Bampton lectures on The Historical Origin and Religious Ideas of the Psalter , which were published in 1890. Chib'chan Antiquities. The Chibchas were an ancient nation of semi-civilized Indians who occupied the territory about the headwaters of the Magdalen a river, South America, whence branches of them widely extended through the area now known as Colombia. They are of interest from their archæological remains, which are many and striking. Their architectural relics consist of some small stone temples, built partly underground, and with walls and roofs of neatly dre ed stone, carved with figures in relief. Near by are many large stone images, short and thick in shape, carved with considerable skill, and with countenances that seem intended to excite terror. There are numerous rock paintings and carvings, containing figures of men and animals, and what may have been intended for written inscriptions, of a symbolic character. Another cla of antiquities are their so-called "calendar stones," small flat stones of curious shapes and carved with figures in low relief. Their purpose is not known. Many burial monuments, from 5 to 30 feet in height, exist; these have been frequently opened, as they were found to contain an abundance of gold and silver ornaments and utensils, which had been buried with the dead. Gold was particularly abundant, being worked into figures, cups, vases, utensils and ornaments, and it is said that as much as $50,000 worth has been extracted from a single mound. The Chibchas used tools of wood and stone, not being acquainted with copper or bronze, and their skill in working gold was considerable. They had the arts of smelting and chasing, and of relief decoration, with much taste for symmetry, and their gold vases surpa ed in beauty of form and workmanship any others found in America. They used gold as money, employing flat pieces, valued by measure instead of weight. The mounds contained earthenware jars and vases in large numbers and graceful shape. Animal forms are rarely imitated, their ceramic ware in this respect differing from that of Peru. Chicago, Continued from SECTION I. i ippi river.-Libraries, & c . C. is well equipped with libraries, the Public Library having over 200,000 volumes, while there are others of value and importance. There are numerous charitable institutions, a progre ing Academy of Sciences, an Art Institute which contains a splendid collection of works of art, the Field Columbian Museum (already named), the Chicago Historical Society, various medical and dental colleges, and numerous educational institutions, including the richly endowed and equipped University of Chicago (q. v.). There are 24 National and 26 State banks, over 650 churches, and a common school system with an enrollment rapidly approaching 200,000 pupils. The newspapers and other periodicals are over 500 in number. The city is governed by a mayor, elected biennially, and 68 aldermen. It has an effective police force and fire department. The total city debt, at a recent statement, was le than $19,000,000. The annual expenditures are over $32,000,000.- Trade and Commerce. Since 1854 C. has become the largest primary grain depot of the world, being the focus of the radii formed by the great cereal-producing region of the N. W. The first shipment of grain from C. on record was made in 1838, the venture being limited to 78 bushels. In the following year over 4,000 bushels were shipped; in 1848, over 3,000,000, while the shipments have now increased to over 300,000,000 bushels. There are 27 grain elevators with a combined capacity of over 32,000,000 bushels. The speculative grain trade of the city is enormous. There is also a large traffic in live stock and meats, the annual receipts averaging over 6,000,000 hogs, 3,000,000 cattle, and over 3,000,000 sheep. The shipments of dre ed beef are over 1,250,000,000 lbs.; of lard nearly 400,000,000 lbs., and of other meat products in proportion. The trade in lumber is equally enormous, the great pine forest regions of the W. making C. their shipping point. It is the largest lumber market in the world, the receipts for a recent year being over 1,600,000,000 feet, while of shingles 240,000,000 feet were received. The coal receipts were nearly 7,000,000 tons.- Manufactures . The manufacturing interests of C. are very large. The 1890 census gave a total of 9,959 establishments, with a capital of $292,477,038, and products valued at $632,184,140. Included as manufactures were the slaughtering and meat-packing industries, with a total value of product of $203,825,092, while clothing, which came next, aggregated $32,517,226. Foundry and machine-shop products were valued at $29,928,816. The census returns showed an increase over 1880 of over 400 per cent in the invested capital.History. The site of C. had long been a place of resort and rendezvous for the Indians, and for many years before a settlement was started there voyagers and fur traders made it a central place of resort. The government considered it of sufficient importance to treat with the Indians, in 1795, for its acquisition, "six miles square at the mouth of the Chikago river" being ceded to the U. S. by the treaty of Greenville. Here Fort Dear born was built in 1803-04, and a small village slowly grew around it. This was laid out as a village in 1803, incorporated as a town in 1833, and incorporated as a city in 1837. The rapidity of its subsequent growth has been already described. The Illinois and Michigan canal, begun in 1836 and completed in 1848, did much to aid the growth of the city. The first ve el was built in 1836, and C. became a port of entry July 16, 1846. The first railroad constructed was 10 miles of the Chicago & Galena Union R. R., on which the first train ran Dec. 15, 1848. The site of the city was so low that eventually it became nece ary to raise the wooden structures, of which it was mainly composed, and entire blocks of buildings were lifted from 4 to 10 feet above their original elevation, this being nece ary to provide a sufficient fall for the sewerage flow. The old city, exposed to sweeping winds, and exceedingly combustible in its materials, met with a disastrous fate in 1871. On Oct. 8 of that year a fire broke out in a barn, and, fanned by a gale of wind, swept over the city with devouring fury. In a few hours the central portion was a ma of flame. On the morning of the 9th the conflagration spread to the north side, and in the afternoon destroyed the water-works, thus cutting off all hope of arrest by human exertions. The fire raged in this quarter all that day, and on the south side till 10 A. M. The result was more disastrous than in any previously recorded conflagration, the space burnt over being more than 2,100 acres in area, and the total lo nearly $200,000,000. Out of a population of 77,000 in the burnt district, scarcely a tenth part were left with a roof to shelter them; but the people of C. attacked their disheartening problem with extraordinary energy, and before many years the city was rebuilt, now in brick and stone and with far more substantial structures. C. has been the scene of several notable riots, of which the anarchist riot of 1886 resulted in the slaughter of several policemen by the explosion of a dynamite bomb, and the execution of the leaders in the outbreak followed. In 1893 there was held here the great Columbian Exposition ( q . v.). In the following year an extensive railroad strike took place, in which over a million dollars' worth of property was destroyed and many lives lost. U. S. troops were ordered out by President Cleveland for its suppre ion. Chicago, University of. A university was chartered in Chicago in 1857, and begun operations in 1858, but was forced to struggle with financial difficulties, to which it succumbed in 1886. In 1888 an effort was made by the American Baptist Education Society to provide Chicago with a better organized and endowed institution of this character, which led in 1889 to a subscription of $600,000 to the projected institution, offered by Mr. John D. Rockefeller, provided $400,000 more could be secured by June 1, 1890. This was accomplished, together with books, apparatus, and a site for the institution valued at $125,000. This site fronts on the Midway Plaisance, between Washington and Jackson Parks. The University was incorporated in June, 1890, under the title of "The University of Chicago," and Profe or William R. Harper was elected its president, and entered upon the duties July 1, 1891. Since then Mr. Rockefeller has made very liberal subscriptions to the institution, the total of his gifts, positive and conditional, aggregating about $6,000,000 up to 1897. Liberal contributions were made by others, until in 1897 the University had productive funds and property amounting to over $7,000,000, with an annual income from interest and dues of nearly $600,000. Its liberal endowment has enabled the University to provide itself with a corps of able instructors and to obtain a large and valuable library, with other facilities for the highest grade of university work. The graduate department, for which a large part of the endowment was given, includes some 21 schools and offers about 40 fellowships. Instruction began in October, 1892, and the University at present (1897) has 184 instructors and a cla of 1,881 students. Chick' weed, n. ( Bot .) The common name for Alisne . The well-known weed of this name is Alsine , or Stellar i a media.-C., BASTARD. Buffonia tern i folia .- C ., FORKED. Anychia dichotoma.-C., INDIAN. An American name for Mollugo .-C., MOUSE-EAR. The common name for Cerastium; also specially C. vulgatum.-C., SEA. Arenaria peploides.-C., SILVER. Paronychia argyrocoma. C., WATER. Montia fontana; also sometimes applied to Malachium aquaticum , and Call i tri che verna. Chiff'-chaff, n. (Ornith.) The Phyllos cop us rufus , a small species of warbler, very widely diffused, but chiefly found in the south of Europe and in the neighborhood of Calcutta. Its general color is brown, the under IMG:content-0484.jpg:[graphic][merged small][merged small] Child, FRANCIS JAMES, Ph. D., LL.D., L. H. D., was born in Boston, Ma ., Feb. 11, 1825. Graduated at Harvard in 1846, and was engaged there as tutor until 1849. He then went abroad and studied for six months at Göttingen. He held the profe orship of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard during 1851-76, and then exchanged this position for that of English profe or in the same college. He next engaged largely in preparing editions of the British poets, of which he i ued a considerable number of volumes, his most important work being The English and Scottish Popular Ballads . He prepared also two anthologies: War Songs for Freemen, and Poems of Religious Sorrow, Comfort, Counsel and Aspiration. Died Sept. 11, 1896. Child, LYDIA MARIA, an American authore , was born at Medford, Ma ., Feb. 11, 1802. Studied with her brother, Rev. Convers Francis, a Unitarian minister. Mrs. C. has been a prolific writer, her first works being novels. The Juvenile Miscellany , a monthly magazine, was edited by her for a period of eight years. Her pen has been used in the service of education, domestic economy, and cookery. The lives of several eminent women have been written by her, and a History of the Condition of Women in All Ages and Nations. Her sympathies were with the anti-slavery cause, and she published An Appeal in Behalf of that Cla of Americans Called Africans, in which she advocated immediate emancipation. In 1841 she, with her husband, edited the National Anti - Slavery Standard . Her Life of Isaac T. Hopper is considered one of the best biographies in the language, and has been translated into German. Her donations for the support of freedmen's schools were very liberal. Died at Way land, Ma ., Oct. 20, 1880. Chil'ders, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY, M.P., F.R.S., statesman, was born in London, England, June 25, 1827; received his education at Trinity College, Cambridge. After leaving college he went to Australia and was prominent in the Government of Victoria. He returned to England in 1857 and became a member of Parliament in 1860. C. held several public offices in England, among which were those of Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Home Secretary in the Gladstone administration, 1886. Died Jan. 29, 1896. Children, Prevention of Cruelty to. Socioties for this purpose are of American origin, the first being established in New York, where a large number of defensele and often maltreated children called for some positive action for their protection. Acts to prevent children from being employed in factories at a tender age, and from being misused when there, had been previously pa ed, with other legislation of a protective nature; but this was the first attempt to defend children in their homes from the inhumanity of parents or guardians. The New York Society continues the largest and most influential, but has given rise to similar a ociations in other cities, of which the most important one abroad is that of London, founded in 1884. These societies have done a large amount of excellent work, and have gone far to restrain the inhuman acts of cruel parents, and to rescue neglected or ill-treated children from those unfit to have them in charge. Childs, GEORGE WILLIAM, LL.D., publisher and philanthropist, was born in Baltimore, Md., May 12, 1829. He came to Philadelphia in his youth, engaged in the publishing busine , and in 1864 became editor and proprietor of the daily Public Ledger , which occupation engaged his attention until his death. Among the gifts made by him to the public is the Shakespeare memorial fountain at Str at ford-on-Avon, and a memorial window in Westminster Abbey to Cooper and Herbert. He also a isted in founding a home for printers at Colorado Springs. He was the author of Recollections of General Grant, and Personal Recollections . Died in Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 1894. Chiliad (kl'i-ad), n. [Gr. chili as- chiliados , from chili on, a you sand.) The number one you sand: a collection or sum containing a you sand individuals or particulars; the period of a you sand years. "Cycles and periods of years, as decades, centuries, chiliads." Holder. Chimes, Electric. ( Elec .) An electric toy used for illustrating attraction and repulsion. It consists of three bells suspended to a horizontal metallic rod. Two of them, A and B, are in metallic connection with the conductor; the middle bell hangs by a silk thread, and is thus insulated from the conductor, but is connected with the ground by means of a chain. Between the bells are small copper balls suspended by silk IMG:content-0485.png:[blocks in formation] middle bell, C, which is charged with negative electricity by induction from A to B. After contact they are again repelled, and this proce is repeated as long as the machine is in action. Chinandega ( che - nan - da'gah ), a town of Nicaragua, Central America, 18 m. N. W. of Leon, and 10 m. from the Pacific coast. Pop . 8,000. Chinchilla, n. (Fabrics.) A soft, pearly-gray fur, obtained from the South American rodent of that name, and much used for cloak linings, trimmings, and similar purposes. Also, a heavy woolen fabric used for overcoats, ., having a short, wavy, raised nap. Chin-chon ( chin ' chơn ), n. A gummy or glutinous matter, much used as a glue or varnish in China and Japan, and supposed to be the product of Plocaria tenax . Chinese' Exclu's ion. The evils of Chinese immigration into the U. S. have been fully recognized upon the Pacific slope for many years. Welcomed at first as a unique addition to the society and a valuable ally in the development of the material resources of their new home, the Chinese, by their non-amalgamating and other objectionable habits, within a short time reversed the judgment in their favor, and came to be regarded as a standing menace to the social and political institutions of the country. The State laws of California regarding them having been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, it was determined to appeal to Congre , which, finally, pa ed a bill restricting Chinese immigration in Feb., 1879. This bill was vetoed by President Hayes, who, soon after, opened negotiations with the Chinese government for the purpose of modifying the provisions of the treaty between the two nations. These negotiations led to a treaty, signed at Peking on Sept. 17, 1880, which regulated and partly restricted Chinese immigration. By that time there were about 100,000 Chinese laborers in the U. S., who worked for lower wages than white laborers and tended to supplant them, thus rousing strong opposition to their presence among the laboring cla es. In the succeeding years Chinese immigration greatly increased, and the opposition to their presence grew more decided. A new treaty was to have been made, but China was slow in ratifying it, and in 1888 Congre pa ed a bill absolutely prohibiting the immigration of Chinamen. Some maintained that this law was unconstitutional, as a violation of treaty obligations, but the Supreme Court sustained it, declaring that the U. S. has the right to regulate immigration and to decide who shall come to its shores. The exclusion law still holds good, and, though many Chinese have surreptitiously entered the country, still more have left it, to enjoy at home the wealth accumulated here; so that the numbers of Chinese in this country are steadily decreasing. Chinook'. ( Ethnol .) The name given to a number of Indian tribes, speaking languages of the same type, who formerly dwelt along the Columbia river from its mouth to about 200 miles eastward, and also for some distance along the Pacific coast. They lived principally upon the salmon of the Columbia, which they bartered with other tribes for the remaining nece aries of their simple lives. The special C. tribe of this family dwelt near the fur-trading settlement of Astoria, and between the whites and the Indians an intermediate form of dialect arose, which became known as the "Chinook jargon," and formed the medium of intercourse between the whites and the various tribes of the region. When Lewis and Clark visited the Columbia, these tribes numbered about 1,800 souls. Probably 600 of them remain, who are on various reservations in Washington and Oregon. The language spoken by these tribes, being an unmusical mixture of Indian, French, English and other words. (Meterol.) A warm, northerly or westerly wind, with a dry atmosphere, which occurs along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountain region from Colorado northward to the Peace river. It occurs when a cyclone is pa ing to the north of the place of observation, and may last from a few hours to several days. Chip'pew a, in Michigan , a N. E. county, bordering on Lakes Superior and Huron and bounded E. by the river St. Mary. Area , 1,550 sq. m. The surface is hilly. Cap . Sault Ste. Marie. Pop . (1897) about 23,000. Chippewa, in Minnesota , a S.W. county, bounded S.W. by the Minnesota river. Area , 2,445 sq. m. The surface is a rolling prairie, with a fertile soil. Cap . Monte video. Рор . (1895) 10,805. Chip'py, n. A name colloquially given to any small bird, as the wren, sparrow, etc., which makes a chirruping sound. Also (U. S. slang), a young girl, especially one who is disposed to be flirtatious, or who spends much time in idle promenading; not being nece arily a term indicative of loose character, but rather of giddine , or somewhat undignifled behavior. Chiquichiqui ( shë - kë -shëkë). (Bot.) The Venezuelan name for Attalea funifera , which yields the pia ava fibre of commerce. Chiv it a nov a ( che - ve -tah-nov ah), a seaport and comercial town of central Italy, about 12 m. W. of Macer at a. Pop . (1895) 5,000. Chlad'ni's Fig'ures. (Phys.) The figures produced in sand by the vibrations of plates; so named from their first observer, E. F. F. Chladni. If a plate of metal or gla be clamped at the center, and caused to vibrate by drawing a bow acro one of its edges, it yields a musical sound. If dry sand be strewn on its surface, the vibration causes it to arrange itse f in well defined lines and figures, forming symmetrical patterns, which change with every different application of the bow, and indicate the number and shape of the vibrating segments of the plate. Chlo'ral, n. [So named to indicate its origin from chlorine and alcohol.] (Chem.) A colorle , oily looking fluid of a peculiar penetrating odor, soluble in alcohol, water and ether. It is prepared by pa ing dry chlorine into anhydrous alcohol; a copious evolution of hydrochloric acid takes place, and C. (CCI CHO) is formed. When a small quantity of water is added to C., they unite, forming a crystalline compound of considerable stability in the air. When C., or its hydrate, is mixed with caustic alkali, it is immediately decomposed into a formate and chloroform. Kept in the anhydrous state for a few days, C. gradually changes to a white ma , like porcelain, without, however, any alteration in chemical composition. Hydrate of chloral is of considerable value in medicine, and it is a very powerful hypnotic, rapidly producing sound and refreshing sleep, while it does not appear to be followed by much injurious reaction. Its use has been recommended as a means of producing sleep for a definite number of hours and thus enabling one to escape the discomforts of a short sea-pa age, and perhaps even to cause the more prolonged manifestations of sea-sickne to be mitigated. The dose is from 10 to 20 grains for an adult. Much larger doses have been given without injury, yet the occurence of certain cases of chloral poisoning indicate the nece ity of caution in its use. Hydrate of C. sometimes increases hysterical symptoms and if not well diluted is irritant to the stomach. It is highly valuable in tetanus. In large doses it powerfully diminishes reflex action, and serves as an antidote in strychnia poisoning. Chloric Acid. A compound of chlorine, hydrogen and oxygen (HCl.0,), which occurs as a syrupy liquid, setting fire to dry organic substances with which it comes in contact. With potash it forms pota ium chlorate (KCl.03), a white crystalline salt which, in combination with sulphur, charcoal and other combustibles, forms highly explosive compounds. Chloro's is, n. ( Bot .) One of the most formidable diseases to which plants are subject, often admitting of no remedy, especially when it is constitutional. It is shown by a pallid condition of the plant, in which the ti ues are weak and unable to contend against severe changes, and the cells are more or le destitute of chlorophyll. It is distinct from blanching, because it may exist in plants exposed to a direct light on a south border, but is often produced or aggravated by cold, ungenial weather and bad drainage. Plants may, however, be affected by this disease as soon as the cotyledons make their appearance, and the seedlings of chlorotine plants partake often of the weak constitution of the parent. The best culture will not always restore such plants to health. The most promising treatment is to water them with a very weak solution of sulphate of iron. Many forms exist, of which those of clover, onions, cucumbers, and melons, are perhaps the best known. Melons have become so subject to C., from soine unknown cause, that their cultivation became extremely difficult; and cucumbers are still more generally affected, the fruit even partaking of the malady, and not only losing its brilliant green, but becoming distorted from gumming and partial decay. See also CHLOROSIS, in SECTION I. Choteau (shō-to), in Montana, a N. co.; surface made up of rolling plains and valleys, with two small mountain ranges. Soil exceedingly fertile, especially in the lowlands; stock-raising is the chief industry. Спр . Fort Benton. Pop . (1897) about 4,000. -A town, cap. of Teton co., 28 m. from Steele, connected by daily stage-line with Black foot and Collins. Pop . (1897) about 475. Christ a delph i ans, n. A sect of Christians, claiming antiquity, and to holding to the early Christian faith. Their "revival" was due to Dr. John Thomas, the son of an English Congregational minister, who came to the U. S. in 1832, and established the sect about 1855. They took their name in 1861. They are opposed to war, practice baptism by immersion, and have no ordained ministers, all being called upon to take part in the work. They believe that God designs to make immortal all who love Him in this life, and to people the world with them hereafter, with Himself, while all others will suffer annihilation. The denomination is small in numbers, po e ing, in 1897, 63 churches and 1,277 members. Christian Endeavor, Young People's Society of. The first Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor was formed Feb. 2, 1881, in Will is ton Church, Portland, Me., by the pastor, Rev. Francis E. Clark. From a small beginning in one church, it has rapidly grown until now (1897), after sixteen years, there are over 48,000 societies in all parts of the world, with a membership approximating three millions. For several years the growth was slow, but after a few years it pushed forward rapidly, so that now more than 5,000 new societies are added to the ranks every year, an average of over one hundred a week. In 1887, the first society was organized in England, and in other foreign and mi ionary lands. The constitution of the society has been printed in over thirty different languages. In this movement all evangelical denominations are represented. In America the Presbyterians are in the lead in the number of societies. In England the Baptists are the leading denomination in C. E. In some of the colonies of Australia and in some parts of Canada the Methodists are in advance of other denominations, while in some of the States of the Union the Disciples of Christ, and in other States the Congregationalists, claim the largest number of Christian Endeavorers. These facts only prove that the society is equally adapted to all denominations in all parts of the world, and show that it is not undenominational, but interdenominational. Any society belonging to an evangelical church which adopts the leading principles of the movement, including the prayer meeting pledge, and which guarantees these principles by the name "Christian Endeavor," used either alone or in connection with a denominational name, is admitted to all the privileges of the movement. The Young People's Society of C. E. is simply an organized effort to lead the young people to Christ and into His Church, to establish them firmly in the faith, and to set them at work in the Lord's vineyard. The main point upon which the Constitution insists is the weekly prayer meeting, which each active member pledges himself or herself to attend (unle detained by some absolute nece ity) and to participate in, in some way. Once each month a special meeting of re-consecration to Christ is held, at which special pains are taken to see whether every active member is faithful to his pledge and true to Christ. The society may-and, as an actual fact, often does-branch out into many other departments of Christian effort, always adapting itself to the local needs of each church. It cannot be insisted on too strongly that the Society of C. E. is first and last and always a religious society. It has social and literary and other features, but it is neither a social nor a literary society. In the Platform of Principles set forth by President Clark, of the United Society, when he accepted the position, and since very generally endorsed by the societies and adopted by their conventions, is the following: "The purely religious features of the organization shall always be paramount. The Society of C. E. centers about the prayer meeting. The strict prayer meeting pledge, honestly interpreted, is e ential to the continuous succe of a Society of C. E. " A society thus organized among the young people has in hundreds of thou⚫sands of cases led young people into the church and set them at work for the church. It gives the young Christian something to do at once. It accustoms him to the sound of his own voice in the prayer meeting. It causes him to understand that he has a part to perform of Erie co., which he held for three years. After the expiration of his term, he renewed succe fully his law practice, but eight years afterward, in 1881, he was nominated for mayor of Buffalo. The reputation for integrity he had gained as sheriff now stood him in good stead, and he was elected by the largest majority ever given to a mayor in that city. In that responsible post C. manifested an unusual devotion to the public interests. He became known as the "veto mayor," and by his arrest of what he deemed extravagant measures, he saved the city, in a few months, nearly $1,000,000. As a consequence, his popularity became great; and in the Democratic State Convention of 1882, he was selected as the most promising candidate for the governorship, to which office he was elected by the immense plurality of 192,824. As governor, C. pursued the same policy of economy and official integrity that he had shown as mayor. His popularity now extended throughout the country, and in the Presidential contest of 1884 the Democratic Convention, on the second ballot, selected him as its candidate. The election which followed was an unusually close one, its result being decided by a very small Democratic majority in New York. C. , however, received 219 electoral votes to 192 for Blaine, and: became President of the United States. As he had done while mayor and governor, so now as President Mr. C. exercised the veto power with great freedom, vetoing 115 bills in the first Congre ional se ion under his administration. His annual me age of Dec. 1887, was devoted to an expre ion of his views in favor of a reduced tariff, but the Republican majority in Congre prevented the pa age of any bill in accordance with those views. In the succeeding campaign the tariff i ue was the most prominent feature of the contest. Mr. C. again became the Democratic nominee, but was defeated in the election by Mr. Harrison, the Republican candidate, who received 233 electoral votes to his 168. At the close of his administration, in 1889, he retired to New York city, where he resumed the practice of the law. But his name was still kept prominent before his party, and in 1892 he was again nominated for the Presidency, receiving more than two-thirds the votes on the first ballot. His opponent was Benjamin Harrison, as in 1888. In the election there proved to have been a great change in the public sentiment during the four years of Harrison's administration, C. carrying 23 States, and receiving an electoral vote of 276, while Harrison received but 145. On March 4, 1893, Mr. C. was a second time inaugurated President of the United States, he being the first who had come a second time to that office after an interval of retirement. The change in public feeling now gave him the support of a Democratic Congre ional majority, and a tariff bill was pa ed in which the rates were considerably altered and somewhat reduced. Cleveland's second administration was marked by a great industrial depre ion whose effects continued throughout and beyond its term. It was marked also by the rise of a strong sentiment in favor of a return to bimetallism as a financial principle, which he opposed, but which became the leading i ue in the following Presidential campaign. Throughout his career he had strongly favored civil service reform, and in the closing days of his administration he added a large number of official positions to the cla ified or competitive examination list. In 1896 he declined to again become a candidate, being strongly opposed to the financial and other policies which his party had adopted as the leading features of their platform; and at the close of his administration, March 4, 1897, he purchased a mansion at Princeton, N. J., and removed thither with his family. Mr. C. married Francis Folsom, daughter of his former law partner and friend, Oscar Folsom, of Buffalo, in 1886. IMG:content-0486.jpg:[graphic] Fig . 286. BEV. FRANCIS E. CLARK, D.D. Fou. der Christian Endeavor Movement. in the activities of the church, as well as the oldest Christian. A generation of Christians trained from early boyhood ar d girlhood in this way-patiently, per-would be a generation of working first Junior society was organized sistent Christ i a March 21 at Tabor, Iowa, by Rev. J. W. Cowan and Mi Belle Smith. This movement was a natural outgrowth of the original work, and the idea spread rapidly. The Junior societies are intended for the children of the churches, to prepare them for the more active work of the regular organizations and ultimate church membership. In many large churches the Juniors have increased in numbers faster than they could properly be graduated into the Young Peoples' societies. This has rendered nece ary the formation of Intermediate societies, the first of which was organized by Rev. A. Z. Conrad, D.D., of Worcester, Ma . Senior societies, as advocated by Dr. Clark, in 1881, also exist, but not as yet to any considerable extent, except in South Australia, where the idea is warmly endorsed. The first of the Mothers' societies, as suggested by Mrs. Amanda B. Fellows, of Chicago, was organized by Mr. F. C. Barton, at Topeka, Kansas, in April, 1893, since which time many have been formed not only in the United States but elsewhere. In some localities Parents' societies, including both fathers and mothers, are in succe ful operation.Among the important special branches of C. E. work is that among the Life - Savers , which was instituted by Rev. S. Edward Young, at the U. S. Life-Saving Station at Asbury Park, N. J.; the Travellers ' C. E. Union, organized at Philadelphia on Nov. 14, 1892, for work among commercial travelers; the Floating societies, for work in the U. S. Navy and among seamen generally; and various special societies whose field of labor reaches the Chinese, the Indians, convicts in prisons, . A society was formed at the Wisconsin State Prison, at Waupun, in 1890, which rapidly grew in membership from 93 to over 200; and similar efforts are being made in other States, notably Kentucky. The United Society of C. E. is simply a bureau of information of which Dr. Clark is President and Mr. John Will is Baer, the General Secretary. Its headquarters are in Boston. It levies no taxes, receives no contributions, and a umes no authority over any local society, but seeks to spread the C. E. idea throughout the world. The World's Union of C. E. held its first triennial convention at Washington, D. C., in July, 1896, representatives being present from every quarter of the globe. Rev. Dr. Clark was elected the President, and Rev. W. J. L. Clo , of Australia, became the first Secre IMG:content-0487.png:[blocks in formation] Christian Science. A system of religious doctrine and of mental cure originated in 1866 by Mrs. Mary Baker Eddy, of Boston, which has grown until now it has a considerable following in America and Europe. Its members believe in a supreme Deity and take the Scriptures for their guide, accepting many of the doctrines of orthodox Christianity, though they believe that sin and suffering are not eternal. Their system of cure is spoken of as C. S. mind-healing and metaphysical healing, and is founded on the theory of the non-existence of matter. In their view, all is mind, and the universe contains but one actual mind, God, of whose mind man is but an idea. They maintain that disease is not actual, but a distorted belief, and that cure depends on discarding this belief. There are other systems of mental and mind healing in vogue, which differ in some particulars of creed or practice from C. S. Christmas Cards. Illustrated or illuminated cards much in use as Christmas remembrances, in lieu of presents. The practice of giving such cards has extended to other anniversaries, particularly Easter. Chroma to scope, n. (Phys.) An instrument for studying the scintillations of stars. It consists of a sort of reflecting telescope, a portion of which may be rotated eccentrically, thus producing an image in the form of a ring instead of a point. The rapidity of rotation is adjusted so that each separate color in the light given off is drawn out into a large segment of the ring-like image, so that the rays may be analyzed by the spectroscope. A device for combining various colored rays of light into one compound ray. Chromium (or Chrome) Steel, n. (Metall.) Steel in which the carbon is in part or wholly replaced by the metal chromium. It is claimed for this steel that it is capable of sustaining a greater degree of heat than ordinary steel, and, consequently, is not so liable to become oxidized or "burnt" in working, and that it works as easily, and rolls much more smoothly than ordinary steel. This steel was used with great succe in those parts of the St. Louis bridge where very great strength was required, notwithstanding that anchor bolts and staves made from the usual cast steel had, as a rule, failed to sustain the tests demanded. It has since been used for many other purposes, with varying succe . Chromom'eter, n. An instrument used in a aying, whereby the intensity of the color of the bead when an oil is fused with borax is compared with the color given by a stated quantity of the metal. Also, a device for determining and differentiating the color of oils. Chromosphere, n. [Gr. chromo , Eng. sphere.] ( Phys .) A gaseous layer which is believed to surround the body of the sun, resting on its photosphere, or incandescent body. The C. is only directly visible at the beginning or ending of a solar eclipse, but its presence and the uprising of vaporous ma es through it can be detected at other times by astronomical means. Chronograph, n. [Gr. chronos, time; graphein , to write.] ( Phys .) An instrument employed in recording the instant in which any event, particularly an astronomical one, occurs. The C. now used employs a rotating cylinder covered with payer and turning once each minute on a helical axis. A point, or pin, governed by a clock, marks uniformly the seconds. The record is made by electro-magnetism, and can be brought into action or stopped at any instant through the manipulation of an electric key by the finger. Chronographs of a simpler form are made for le delicate purposes, as for use at horse races. These can measure intervals down to one-tenth of a second. Chronoscope, n. [From Gr. chronos, and skopeō , to examine.] ( Electricity .) An instrument invented by Wheat stone, for the purpose of determining the duration of the electric spark, and the velocity of electric discharge. It is founded on the optical effect known as persistence of the image on the retina; that, in fact, which gives rise to the appearance of a line of light when a stick with a burning point is whirled in the air. In Wheat stone's instrument a small mirror was caused to rotate with enormous angular velocity round an axis in its own plane, and the image of the spark or other luminous object was observed in it. Under these circumstances, if the illumination be instantaneous, the image will appear as a mere spot of light, precisely the same as if the mirror were at rest; but if it lasts for any time, then the mirror, moving on in the interval, gives rise to an image extended out into a line of light. This may readily be observed by any one who takes a mirror in his hand, and either waves it about or makes it revolve in front of a candle. It is easily shown by geometry that, in the case of a revolving mirror, the angular displacement of the image is twice that of the mirror. It then, the length of the line of light be measured, and if the velocity of rotation of the mirror be known, the duration of the spark is calculable. By means of the C. , Profe or Wheat stone showed that an ordinary spark from an electric machine, or from a Leyden jar, discharged in the common way, lasts le than the millionth of a second; but that, in the latter case, if the discharge takes place through half a mile of copper wire, the spark lasts for a sensible time. The instrument has also been employed to demonstrate the discontinuity of certain flames. Church, RICHARD WILLIAM, D. L. C., Dean of St. Paul's, London, was born in Lisbon, April 25, 1815. He received first cla ical honors at the University of Oxford, subsequently became fellow of Oriel College. In the position of Dean of St. Paul's, an appointment bestowed upon him Sept. 6, 1871, he showed much executive ability. He is the author of Civilization and Religion; The Beginning of the Middle Ages; Dante, Spencer and. Bacon , in English Men of Letters, . Died in London, Dec. 9, 1890. Church'ill, LORD RANDOLPH HENRY SPENCER, M.P., English statesman, was born Feb. 13, 1849. He received his education at Merton College, Oxford. He was twice returned to Parliament, in the years 1874 and 1893, but became prominent in politics about 1880. In Lord Salisbury's first administration he held the office of Secretary of State for India. This period was marked by the annexation of Burmah. Subsequently he became Chancellor of the Exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. His attacks on Mr. Gladstone's policy were of great value to the Conservative cause of which he was a leader. At one time he was regarded as the coming Tory leader and Beacons field's succe or in office. As correspondent of a London newspaper, he traveled for some time in Southeast Africa. Died Jan. 24, 1895. Chut'nee. [Native Hindostanee name.] ( Cookery .) A condiment very largely consumed in India and Great Britain. There are many varieties, but it generally consists of a compound of mangoes, capsicum or chilies, and lime-juice, flavored with garlic and eschalots. Cinder ell a. [Cinder-girl. Fr. Cendrillon .] The heroine of a popular fairy tale, condemned by a cruel stepmother to drudgery ( sitting in the ashes ), while her sisters dre ed in finery. The story tells how C. , by a fairy's help, gains the love of a young prince, much to the chagrin of her sisters; how, when pursuing her, he lost her, and how he discovered her by means of a gla shoe or a golden shoe, a gift of the fairy, which she had dropped, and which would fit no other foot but hers, and their final marriage. The story is of great antiquity and was probably derived from the East. Cinematograph, n. [Gr. kinēma , a motion, and graphō, to write.] A device for displaying pictures of men, animals, ., in motion; a variation of the kinetograph (g.v.) and the kinetoscope (q.v.). Cin'gular, a. Resembling or pertaining to a cingu-lum (q.v.). Circular; forming a circle. Cirrhosis (sir-ro's is), n. [From Gr. kirros , yellow.] (Path.) A term applied to a morbid condition in which yellow coloring matter is formed in the ti ues. It is undoubtedly owing to deficient action of the liver, in connection with a plethoric or cachectic state of the whole system. A tepid ablution daily, a spare and simple dietary, the hip-bath once or twice a day, and the wet-girdle, are useful remedies. Cisco, in Texas , a town of Eastland co., 155 m. from Waco. It is in a farming and stock-raising district, and is central to a large but undeveloped coal and iron belt. Pop . (1890) 1,063. Cisneros-Be tan court, SALVADOR, Cuban patriot and statesman, born in Puerto-Principe, in 1832, having the hereditary title of Marquis of Sauta Lucia. Was President of the Cuban House of Representatives during the ten years' war, 1868-78, and in that capacity signed the decree of emancipation of the slaves. He was subsequently made President of the Cuban Republic of that period, and was also elected president of the present Republic in September, 1895. Señor C - B . is of the bluest Spanish blood, but a Cuban patriot of dauntle courage and determination, which qualities make up for whatever lack of dash and brilliancy his career may have shown. Civ'ics, n. The science that treats of citizenship and the relations between citizens and the government. It embraces ethics, or social duties; civil law, or governmental methods; economics, or the principles of finance and exchange; and the history of civic development. The study of C. is now actively pursued by political and social economists, and has been widely introduced into the schools of this country, where it must exert a very beneficial effect upon the minds of the growing generation if the instructions given therein shall be based upon facts rather than personal prejudices, which, unfortunately, is not the case. Civ'il Service Reform'. The civil service of a nation or smaller organized community comprehends the whole body of officials who manage the civil affairs of its government, in distinction from those engaged in the military and naval service of the nation. In modern civilized governments it comprises three branches, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial, though the duties of these, as likewise of the civil, military and naval, may at times partly merge into one another. Legislative and judicial officials are usually chosen by election, but in the executive service there is a large body of civil functionaries who cannot conveniently be thus selected-more than 175,000 in the civil service of the U. S., between the grades of the heads of depart ments and that of mere laborers. Nearly one-half of these are postmasters, under whom there are many you sands of clerks and carriers, while the official duties of the departments of the government at Washington demand another great host of employees. Minor officials of this character have hitherto been appointed to their positions in this country. At first they were retained, if their duties were satisfactorily performed, from one administration to another, being removed only for sufficient cause; so that during the early administrations very few removals from office took place. This wholesome custom was completely changed by President Jackson, who advanced the political dogma that those of his own party deserved reward for their allegiance, and thereupon proceeded to make an almost complete change in the body of office-holders under the government. Thence arose the pernicious doctrine that "to the victors belong the spoils," and it became the established custom, with each change of party in the administration, to dismi all the minor officials of the former administration and replace them by others belonging to the dominant party. This custom proved advantageous to many legislators, who, by their influence with the executive, were able to reward their partisans for political services; but it was decidedly disadvantageous to the government, in the frequent removal of tried and able officers and their replacement by inexperienced succe ors, whose only preparation for public service lay in their ability to control votes, and who often proved very inefficient and neglectful in the duties of their offices. This system of affairs was long felt to be not only highly unwise but hurtful, aside from the strain made upon the President by the solicitations of office-seekers and their friends, and the consumption of his valuable time and strength in listening to such demands. The system of appointment had elsewhere been replaced by a better one. In China, for ages past, all appointments had been made through competitive examinations. A similar system was adopted in part in Great Britain more than fifty years ago; beginning with an inferior system of what were known as "pa -examinations," and in which a recommendation from an influential person nece arily preceded the examination, and developing into nearly a complete system of competitive examinations. A reform of this character in the civil service of the U. S. was long urgently needed, but it had to contend with powerful counter-influences. The first steps taken in the direction of reform were in 1853 and 1855, when acts of Congre were pa ed requiring an examination of applicants for positions in the four great cla es of clerkships at Washington. The next step was taken by President Grant, who, between 1872 and 1874, enforced a system of competitive examinations in the departments at Washington. He was aided in this by a favoring clause in an appropriation bill, and appointed al civil-service commi ion to take charge of these new duties. Congre , however, refused to pa an appropriation to support these examinations, and they were in consequence suspended. The reform sentiment in the country was meanwhile growing, and during the next decade made itself strongly felt, particularly after Garfield's strenuous advocacy of the reform principles and his death at the hands of a disappointed office seeker. As a result, Congre pa ed a Civil Service Act in 1883, which contained stringent provisions for the suppre ion of political a e ments and provided for a system of competitive examinations. Under it President Arthur promulgated a series of rules and appointed a civil service commi ion in whose hands the management of the new system has since remained. The original law applied to about 14,000 places, but its scope has since been extended, and new cla es of the service brought under the control of the commi ion by executive order, a very large number being added by President Cleveland near the close of his second term. In 1897, of the 178,717 positions in the civil service of the U. S. government, 87,107 were in the cla ified list, to be filled by competitive examination. Of the remaining 91,610, more than two-thirds (66,725) were fourth-cla postmasters, whom it has not yet proved convenient to place on the cla ified list. Aside from these, therefore, only about 25,000 remain on the uncla ified list. The removals from the cla ified list have been le than two per cent., from the uncla ified more than six per cent.; proving the much greater efficiency of the former cla of public servants. Civil service laws have been pa ed in some of the States, and are in action in a number of cities. Wherever adopted they have proved in various respects advantageous, and this reform is likely to become generally observed throughout the country before many years. Claiborne, or Cle'borne, WILLIAM, first Secretary of State of Virginia, born about 1583. Appointed Secretary of State 1626, Treasurer of Virginia 1642, and Parliamentary Commi ioner in 1651. He owned, purchased, and planted Kent Island, in the Bay of Chesapeake, of which he was deprived by the charter granted to Lord Baltimore. Smarting under a sense of injustice, and the king failing to redre his wrongs, he refused to acknowledge the claims of Calvert, seized Anna polis, and drove the "Lord Proprietor" from the Province. He has been styled the "Evil genius of Maryland" and "The Champion of Virginia." Died about 1677. Claiborne, WILLIAM CHARLES COLE, governor of Louisiana, born in Virginia in 1775, descended from Wm. Cleborne, first secretary of the colony of Virginia. When quite a youth he wrote in his Latin grammar the noble sentiment: -Cara patria, carior libertas; ubi est libertas , ibi est mea patria.-" Dear my country, dearer liberty; where liberty is, there is my country." He was appointed Judge of the Supreme Court of Tenne ee at the age of 22. At 23 he was elected to Congre from Tenne ee. Appointed governor of Mi i ippi in 1801; governor of New Orleans Territory, 1805; governor of Louisiana, 1812-16; elected senator from Louisiana in 1817. He was an able lawyer, a distinguished orator, and a true patriot, and occupied the gubernatorial chair of Louisiana at the time of its invasion by the English. Died 1817. Clare, in Michigan , a village of Clare co., 50 m. N. W. of East Saginaw. Has hardwood lumber and agricultural interests. Pop . (1894) 1,392; (1897) abt. 1,550. Clar'et. [Fr. clairet , from clair , clear.] A term used in England and America to denote the red wine of Bordeaux, and a term generally applied to the light red wines of France. Clairet , in France, signifies the wines which are red or rose-colored; but the word, as used by us, and employed to describe every kind of light-red wine, is not used in France. Claretie, ARSENE ARMAND (called JULES), French littér ateur, was born in Limoges, Dec. 3, 1840. His works are numerous, comprising novels, plays, criticisms, historical e ays, . In 1885 he was appointed general administrator of the Comédie Française . His books include Pierrille , Mlle . Cacémire , Un A a in , and Derniers Montagnards His to ire de l'Insurrection de Prairial. Also biographies of Victor Hugo, Alphonse Daudet, . Clark, ALONZO, M. D., LL. D., physician, was born in Chester, Ma ., Mar. 1, 1807. He graduated A. B. at Williams College in 1828, and took the degree of M. D. in the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York in 1835. Several profe orships have been held by him, also the position of dean of the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons. The New York State Medical Society elected him president in 1853. He was the author of valuable profe ional papers. Died in New York, Sept. 13, 1887. Clark, ALVAN, A. M., was born in Ash field, Ma ., Mar. 8, 1804. He was employed as an engraver for calico printing in the Lowell works, Ma . Subsequently he became succe ful as a portrait painter, an art which he subsequently resigned to engage in the manufacture of astronomical instruments. He was the first American who was succe ful in making large achromatic lenses, and won great fame, both at home and abroad, in the field of astronomical observation. He invented a double eye-piece for measuring small arcs. Died in Cambridge, Ma ., Aug. 19, 1887. Clark, ALVAN GRAHAM, astronomer; son of Alvan C., was born in Fall River, Ma ., July 10, 1832. Ru ia awarded him a medal for a 30-inch refractor which was used in the St. Petersburg Observatory. He formed one of the solar eclipse expeditions of 1870 and 1878 to Spain and Wyoming, and in 1872 received from France the Lalande gold medal for resolving the companion star of Sirius. Clark, DANIEL, physician and alienist, was born at Grant on, Inverne -shire, Scotland, Aug. 29, 1836. He went to Canada in 1841. After graduating at Victoria College, he took a course at Edinburgh University, and subsequently became an a istant in the Surgeon General's department of the U. S. Army in 1864. H. has devoted his life to the care and interests of the insane, and holds the office of Superintendent of the Asylum for the Insane at Toronto. He is president of the A ociation of Medical Superintendents of the American Institutions for the Insane, and is profe or of Psychology and Mental Diseases in Toronto University. He has published John Garth and Pen Photographs. Clark, FRANCIS EDWARD, D.D., founder of the Christian Endeavor Movement, was born at Aylmer, Quebec, Sept. 12, 1851. He received his education at Kimball Union Academy and Dart mouth, graduating in 1873; also studied at And over Theological Seminary. His first pastorate was a Congregational Church at Portland, Maine. Here, among the young people of his church, he organized the first Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor, Feb. 2, 1881. In 1887 he accepted the presidency of the United Society of Christian Endeavor, and the editorship of the Golden Rule , the official organ of the society, and later became President of the World's Union of Christian Endeavor. Dr. Clark's home is at Auburn dale, Ma . See CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR. Clark, LEWIS GAYLORD, author, was born at Otisco, Onondaga co., N. Y., in 1810. He edited the Knicker bocker Magazine for many years. It was the father of the modern popular magazine. His writings comprised but two works, the Knickerbocker Sketch - book , and Knick Knacks. Died Oct. 3, 1873. Clark, WILLIAM GEORGE, English littérateur , was born in England, March, 1821; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and ordained in 1853. In his pamphlet, The Present Dangers of the Church of England, he explains the cause of his withdrawal from the church, having resigned his orders in 1869. In collaboration with others he i ued the Cambridge Shakespeare (9 vols., 1863-66). In 1862, he published Lectures on the Middle Ages and the Revival of Learning. Died at York, Nov. 6, 1878. Clark University, an educational institution chartered in 1887, at Worcester, Ma ., and devoted exclusively to post-graduate work in the sciences; its branches including mathematics, physics, chemistry, morphology, anatomy, physiology, neurology, psychology, anthropology, and pedagogy, great prominence being given to original investigation. It was founded by Jonas G. Clark, who, with his wife, has founded a system of 30 fellowships and scholarships for meritorious students. It is under the presidency of G. Stanley Hall, LL.D. Clarke, SIR ANDREW, lieutenant-general in the British Army, was born at South sea, England, in 1824. He was educated at Woolwich Military Academy, and entered the Corps of Royal Engineers, June 19, 1844. His promotion was rapid, he attaining in 1886 the appointment of lieutenant-general. He was made executive councillor and member of the first cabinet in the colony of Victoria, and for his wise administration during the excitement attendant upon the discovery of gold the English government created him a Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George. While occupying the position of director of works of the ravy, an appointment received in 1864, he designed and executed the great docks at Malta and Bermuda, also the extensive new works at Portsmouth. Among the offices held by him was that of Minister of Public Workciand member of the Council of the Governor-General ilus ndia, Died Nov. 6, 1893. Clarke, JAMES FREEMAN, D.D., Unite lean preacher, editor and author, was born in Hanover, N. H., April 4, 1810, and studied at Harvard University and Cambridge Divinity School. In 1841 he founded the Church of the Disciples at Boston. The chair of Natural Theology in Harvard was held by him from 1867-71, His works are many, and chiefly religious, they include Ten Great Religions, Self Culture, Evenstad Epochs in Religious History, . Died in Bostor They are 1988. Clarke, JOHN, one of the founders on, and hant State of Rhode Island, was born in Englaimon to tearly part of the 17th century. In 1628 he emigrated to New England, and became pastor of a Baptist Church founded by him at Newport. In conjunction with Roger Williams, he acted as agent in procuring a new charter for the colony, and died in 1676. Clarke, JOHN SLEEPER, comedian, was born in Baltimore, Md., in 1835. He made his first appearance at the Howard Athenæum in Boston in 1851, afterwards came to Philadelphia and became leading comedian and finally joint le ee of the Arch Street Theatre, where he attained a high reputation in several comedy parts. He subsequently formed a partnership with his brother-in-law, Edwin Booth, and they purchased the Walnut Street Theatre, Philadelphia. He finally became propretor of the Charing Cro Theatre, London. Two of his sons have become prominent and favorite players. Clau's ius, RUDOLF JULIUS EMANUEL, physician, mathematician and thermodynamist, was born in Koslin, Pru ia, Jan. 1, 1822. He was educated in the schools of Berlin and in the University, and held several profe orships in Natural Philosophy, the last being in the University of Bonn, a position filled by him till his death. His most remarkable work was the construction of the science of thermodynamics upon the modern basis, the doctrine of the equivalence of heat and work as forms of energy-effect. Several learned societies made him a member, and he received decorations from several European governments. Cla'vus. ( Bot .) The disease which produces ergot in gra es; so called because it causes the young grain to grow into the form of a nail or club. IMG:content-0488.jpg:[graphic][subsumed][subsumed] Cleveland, in Oklahoma , a S. co., generally level and having a black, loamy soil of great fertility. Pop . (1897) about 17,500. Cap . Norman. Cleveland, in Tenne ee, a town, capital of Bradley co., 29 miles N.E. of Chattanooga. Has various mannfacturing interests. Pop . (1897) about 4,200, Cliff Dwellers, n. ( Anthrop .) A race or family of Indians, now extinct or varied in habit, who formerly resided in natural rece es in the cliffs of the valleys of the Rio Grande and Rio Colorado, and the tributaries of the latter stream, in which they built themselves dwellings at such a vertical height from the ground as to be nearly inacce ible. The dwellings, many of which remain, are skilfully constructed of stones, sometimes broken into nearly uniform blocks and rudely dre ed, which are laid in clay mortar. Interiorly they are often plastered, while on the outside is laid a coat of clay, in rare cases washed over with white clay. Many of these houses are small, occupying narrow shelves in the cliffs. But where a large rece exists, the structure often becomes a communal dwelling of many rooms, whose outer walls conform to the irregular margin of the rece . They not infrequently rise to two and occasionally to three stories, the upper floors and roofs being supported by poles set in the walls. In many cases no roof is needed, the walls being carried to the top of the rece , whose mountain wall covers in the edifice. The doors and windows have wooden lintels, and were probably closed by skins, blankets or slabs of stone. At present some of the dwellings are quite inacce ible, from the breaking away of the paths that formerly led to them up the cliffs, and can generally be reached only by a difficult climb. It is supposed that they were built in such situations as places of refuge from enemies. Just how their inmates subsisted, is not very evident; for these localities are now quite incapable of the growth of food plants, being usually waterle . In former times they must have been le barren. Numerous relics of the utensils, weapons and other belongings of the C. D. have been recovered from their habitations, sufficient to give us some idea of their mode of living. This life must have been a meager and primitive one, though the constructive ability displayed indicates some degree of civilized progre . The Pueblo Indians, still existing in that region of the West-po ibly descendants or relatives of the C. D. display much constructive skill, and po e habits probably similar to those of the vanished people here described. Clifton, in S. Carolina, a town of Spartan burg co., 71⁄2 m. N. E. of Spartan burg. Pop . (1897) about 2,000. Clifton Heights, in Pennsylvania, a borough of Delaware co. and suburb of Philadelphia. Has several textile mills and other manufactories. Pop . (1897) about 2,200. Cling'man, THOMAS LANIER, soldier, scientist and statesman, was born at Huntsville, N. C., July 27, 1827; graduated at University of North Carolina in 1832; settled in Asheville, where he practiced law. Was six times sent to Congre from the "Old North State" and twice to the U. S. Senate, resigning his place in the last named body upon the sece ion of North Carolina, in whose service he entered the Confederate army, rising to the rank of brigadier-general. His scientific researches made known the existence of valuable mineral treasures of his native State, and Clingman's Peak (otherwise known as Mitchell's Peak), the highest of the Black Mountains, was explored and measured by him, in whose honor it was named. Clinician, n. ( Med . ) A physician who gives clinical instructions, or who is versed in that line of work. One whose methods are based upon clinical observations. See CLINIC. Clinton, JAMES, an American military officer, born in Ulster co., N. Y., in 1736, received a colonel's commi ion at the outbreak of the War of the Revolution in 1775, and became a ociated with Gen. Montgomery in the latter's expedition against Canada. Two years later he aided in the defence of Fort Clinton, and afterward received the command, as brigadier-general, of the Northern department at Albany. After the close of the war he occupied various important civil positions in the government of his State, and died in 1812. He was father of De Witt C. Clintonville, in Wisconsin, a city of Waupaca co. Has lumbering interests. Pop . (1897) about 2,000. Cloisonne, n. [Fr. cloison , a partition.] A species of ware made in Japan. Upon the surface of the object, generally copper, which is to be enamelled, the design is worked out with tiny metal fillets, like flattened wires, of various lengths and shapes. These are fastened on with strong glue, and form the cloisons , or partitions, which are to separate the different colored enamels; this requires great care and skill. The design having been thus fixed, the enamels are introduced between the cloisons, in the form of a dry paste, by means of diminutive chopsticks. The whole is then baked, after which the various little cracks and crevices which appear in the fused enamel are filled in with fresh paste, and the article again placed in the oven. In the superior work this proce is repeated again and again until the surface is uniform and without flaw, though as yet rough and lusterle ; the polishing is done with a stone, and is a long and tedious operation, occupying several months in the case of articles of any size. The effect of the proce is to grind down the inequalities of the enamelled surface, until the design is left clear and indelible, outlined by the cloisons, and with a fine vitreous luster. Fine examples of this ware are very expensive. Cloquet, in Minnesota , a thriving town of Carlton co., 30 m. W. of Duluth. Has water power and lumber manufactures. Pop . (1897) about 2,750. Cloture, n. [Fr.) (Par. Law . ) Literally, a closure (q. v .). It is a parliamentary device in Great Britain, similar to the previous question in the U. S. Congre , to avoid the needle prolonging of debate. Under the cloture rule the Speaker may call for the vote of the house, and if two hundred members demand the vote, or if not more than forty object, the vote shall be taken. If not le than a hundred members sustain it, the closure is declared in effect. Cloud, in Kansas , a N. central county, intersected by Republican and Solomon rivers; area , 720 square miles. The surface is nearly all fertile prairie land, producing large crops of corn, and other cereal and general crops. Pop . (1897) about 22,000. Cap . Concord i a. Cloud-Burst. ( Meterol .) A sudden and very severe rainfall over a contracted territory, the rain falling at the rate of 5 or 6 inches per hour or even more-but being of very brief duration. Rains of this kind seem due to local conditions, are most common in the hottest season, and most frequent on mountain sides and in arid regions. During their continuance there is usually severe and continuous lightning. The rapid fall is apt to fill ravines suddenly and cause a swift and destructive downflow. What are known as "torrential rains" belong to general storms, and thus differ from cloud-bursts, whose local nature is indicated by their brevity and the sudden dispersion of the clouds after the rain. This phenomenon is ascribed to the meeting of a warm current of air, surcharged with moisture, and a cold current, the result being swift condensation and immediate precipitation of the water formed. Cloud Chief, in Oklahoma , a town, the cap. of Washita co. Pop . (1897) about 360. Clough, ANNE JEMIMA, educator, was born in Liverpool, about 1822; a sister of the poet, Arthur Hugh Clough. Her child-life and girlhood were spent in Charleston, S. C. After the age of sixteen she made England her home, and was instrumental in founding the North of England Council for Promoting the Higher Education of Women, from which came the idea of the Cambridge higher local examinations, intended for women only, but which subsequently were opened to men. Newnham Hall and the two later buildings erected for women were due to Mi Clough's enterprise and interest in education. Her sympathy and tact did much toward making her leadership for the higher education of woman in England succe ful. Died Feb. 27, 1892. Clough, ARTHUR HUGH, poet, was born in Liverpool, England, Jan. 1, 1819. He was educated at Rugby and at Baliol College, Oxford, where he took his bachelor's degree in 1841, becoming later a fellow of Oriel College and remaining at Oxford until 1848, publishing his first poem in that year, The Bothie of Tober -na- Vuolich ; 4 Long Vacation Pastoral. In 1849 he published a series of poems under the title of Am bar vali a . Died 1861. Clubs for Women. The past 30 years have been marked by a rapid development in the U. S. of women's clubs, the first of which exclusively for women, the Sorosis, was founded in New York in March, 1868. It arose from the refusal of the committee on the Dickens dinner, given by the Pre club, to permit women to participate equally with men. Mrs. J. C. Croly, with twelve other ladies, founded the club, whose first president was Sarah Parton (Fanny Fern). Previous to this time there were no a ociated movements among women outside the churches and the slavery and suffrage movements, in all of which they were a ociated with and largely controlled by men. The second woman's club which attained prominence was the New Century club, organized in Philadelphia in 1876 as an outgrowth of the Centennial Exposition, and which has exerted a very beneficial influence on various social and benevolent interests in that city. From that time forward clubs for women grew rapidly, and at a convention held in 1889 there were 96 invited to participate, of which 65 sent delegates. A committee representing the Sorosis of New York, the New Century of Philadelphia and the Woman's Club of Brooklyn, drafted a constitution and devised a plan of permanent organization, which was adopted the following year, 60 clubs participating, and a general federation of woman's clubs was established on a permanent basis. At the first biennial convention, held at Chicago in 1892, the membership of the federation aggregated more than 200 clubs, their members ranging from 15 to 500, and some of them having flourishing branches or outgrowths devoted to special work. These covered 31 states, and two of them were in India. The meeting in May, 1896, showed a continuance of this rapid growth, the membership of the federation including 24 state federations and 450 clubs in 41 states. Several other foreign clubs had been added to the federation, while the total membership was considerably over 50,000. Several of these clubs have handsome club houses of their own, such as the New Century, of Philadelphia, the Athenæum of Milwaukee, the Propyleum of Indianapolis, ., while the clubs themselves have been of the utmost advantage to women, in broadening their views of life, bringing them into active service for benevolent and other objects, teaching them how to think and speak on public themes, and, as in the case of the Civic Club of Philadelphia, making them highly useful agents in the administration of city affairs or the outworking of municipal reforms. London has several woman's clubs, but they have an aim much le broad than that manifested in this country, confining themselves largely to social interests. The Pioneer Club, composed wholly of women, takes a wider view of its duties, and follows American ideas and methods. Cluseret ( kloo - sèr - ā '), GUSTAVE PAUL, a French general and revolutionist, born in Paris, 1823. He served in the Crime an War with distinction, and gained the rank of captain, and in 1859 served as major in the Italian campaign of Gen. Garibaldi. In 1862 he joined the National Army of the U. S., and obtained the rank of colonel, returning to France after the close of the war, and taking up the profe ion of a journalist in Paris. Later he became mixed up with the Fenian agitation in England and was forced to quit that country. On his return to France he suffered two months' imprisonment in St. Pelagie on account of his incendiary newspaper articles. In 1869 he became a member of the so-called International Society, and in the same year was banished from France on the charge of attempting to spread its principles among the military. After the proclamation of the Provisional Government of 1870, C. joined the revolutionists at Marseilles, Lyons and Paris, becoming general-in-chief of the Commune of Paris. He, however, soon became distrusted by the revolutionists, and being arrested, was reported to have been shot, Sept. 22-26, 1871, prior to the taking of Paris by the government troops. Through this ruse he was enabled to escape and has since resided near Geneva. Clyde, in Kansas , a city of Cloud co., on the Republican river. Has a fine trade in grain, hogs, . Pop . (1897) about 1,600. Coal in the United States. No other country in the world, so far as at present developed, compares with the United States in quantity and wide distribution of coal. Immense beds are found in a number of the States, especially in Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia, Alabama, Colorado, Iowa and Maryland, and the annual production is rapidly growing. In 1890 the total output of the mines was 157,788,656 tons. In 1895 this had increased to 192,421,311 tons, and this rapid rate of growth promises to continue. Of this great product Pennsylvania yielded more than half (50,000,000 tons bituminous and 58,000,000 tons anthracite), while the yield of Illinois was 17,735,864; of Ohio, 13,376,137 IMG:content-0489.jpg:[graphic][subsumed][subsumed] of West Virginia, 11,424,863; of Alabama, 5,679,775; and of various other States in gradually diminishing proportion. This coal occurs in several great fields, and other more local ones, of which the Appal a chi an, which at present yields the great bulk of the mining output, extends along the Appal a chi an mountain system from Pennsylvania to Alabama; its estimated area being 58,695 square miles, its length being over 900 miles, while it varies from 30 to 180 miles in breadth. The thickne of the coal-measures varies from 100 to 3,000 feet. Of this great area, that occupied by the Pennsylvania anthracite forms but a small fraction; but it is so rich and its coal so superior for household and various other purposes, that it is very extensively mined, yielding nearly a third of the total product of the country. The bituminous beds of this field are at present much the most largely mined in western Pennsylvania, though West Virginia and Alabama each contains vast deposits, while there are rich coal-strata in several other Appal a chi an states. Still more extensive is the great western bituminous field, covering much of Mi ouri, Iowa, Arkansas, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas and the Indian Territory, its total area being estimated at over 98,000 square miles. Iowa and Mi ouri yield the most coal, but that of Indian Territory ranks as the best. More important as a mining area, however, is the central field, covering over 47,000 square miles in Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky, of which area 36,800 square miles lie in Illinois alone. Sixty counties of this State are underlaid with coal, of which the seams are often of considerable thickne and easily mined, as they lie near the surface. In Virginia and North Carolina occurs a more localized field, of Tria ic instead of Carboniferous origin, having 2,880 square miles area, of which 2,700 lie in North Carolina. Michigan also po e es a localized coal-field, of about 6,700 square miles area. Its coal is inferior, and is mined only for local consumption. The five fields mentioned extend over a total area of 214,000 square miles. West of them lie two other extensive fields, those of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast region, whose area cannot yet be estimated. The Rocky Mountain field includes large coal-deposits in North Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico, their coal largely consisting of the late variety known as lignite, though it varies to some extent into anthracite in Colorado and New Mexico. Of this field, the coal-deposits of Colorado are the most extensive and valuable, and have been the most fully developed. The Pacific coal-beds lie in the States of Washington, Oregon and California, of which those of Washington are the the most extensive, these consisting of the lignite, semi bituminous and bituminous varieties. Several important mining areas have been developed on both slopes of the Cascade mountain range. The lignites of western United States resemble the "brown coal" of Europe in holding a large amount of water, its proportion in most of them being from 12 to 15 per cent., though its full range is from 4 to 20 per cent. In color and luster they resemble the bituminous coals, with which they are, for practical purposes, almost identical. They appear to belong to the lower Tertiary age of geology. Their beds are often of great size, reaching a thickne of 27 feet on Bear Creek, Utah, and are remarkably free from impurities or from seams of slate. Alaska has also been found to po e coal of the Tertiary age, and also true bituminous. These coals, in the future, are likely to prove of great value. Cannel coal-a compact variety of bituminous, which burns with a bright flame-is found in several of the States, the bed near Greens burg, Pa., being about 8 feet thick. A very thick bed occurs in Mi ouri, and excellent deposits in West Virginia, Indiana, and elsewhere. In Canada, the only important coal-deposits yet known are those of Vancouver Island and Nova Scotia, of which the former aids largely in supplying the Pacific States, while the latter is of value to England. Coal City, in Illinois , a post-village of Grundy co., 59 m. S.W. of Chicago. Coal mining is the principal industry. Pop . (1897) about 1,850. Coal Creek, in Tenne ee , a post-village of Anderson co., on Southern R.R., 10 m. N. of Clinton. Pop . (1897) abt. 2,000. Coal Dale, in Pennsylvania , a post-village of Schuylkill co., in the anthracite mining region. Pop . (1897) abt. 2,000. Coal Mining. In the opening of a mine, tunnels or adit-levels are driven in the lode, or so as to cut it if the coutour of the country permits. In sinking shafts the workmen blast out the rock in the bottom of the pit and send the excavated material in buckets to the surface. The sides of the shaft are supported by timbers or walls. The principal difficulty met with in this operation comes from the presence of water, which is now most usually overcome by the proce known as "tubbing." In this, beams of cast iron are employed, and many you sands of wooden wedges are driven into the water-bearing strata, a succe ion of cast-iron segments or rings being built in. The shaft is in this way sunk, and the water pumped out as it accumulates. Other methods of overcoming the difficulty from water have been devised, but all of them are uncertain, failure often following costly attempts. The average depth of coal mines, before the steam engine was brought into use, did not exceed 100 yards. At present, 400 yards is nearer the average of English mines, while a depth of as much as 3,000 feet has been reached. This is surpa ed by the Calumet copper mine shaft on Lake Superior, which is 3,900 feet deep. The cutting of galleries inward from the shaft, as practiced by the ancient miners, was a very laborious proce , the rock being gradually broken away by the use of wedges and ham mers. It was not until the beginning of the 17th century that gunpowder was brought into use in mining operations, and it was not largely used until the 18th century. By the blasting proce now employed the galleries are rapidly excavated and are much larger than of old, the former 5 feet in height being now 72, while they are made about 5 feet wide. The galleries excavated and the seam reached, various methods of getting out the coal are employed. Dynamite is too quick in its action, and blasting powder continues to be used, millions of tons of coal being mined by its aid. Yet the danger of causing explosions of mine gas by the use of explosives has caused the adoption of other methods of mining. Thus, a hole is bored and wedges driven in to force out the coal which has been undercut by the pick. This undercutting is very laborious work, and coal-cutting machines, worked by compre ed air or electricity, have been invented to perform that part of the work. Such machines are largely used in American mines. Another method is to place cartridges of caustic lime in the bore-holes and drive water in on them by a force pump. The lime expands greatly in absorbing the water and exerts a rending pre ure on the coal To sustain the walls when the coal has been removed is an important requisite. In America this is largely done by permitting pillars of coal to remain as columns of support. But the subsequent disposition of mine-owners to rob these pillars of their coal has led to many fatal "cave-ins."-Fire Damp. The greatest danger in mining operations, however, comes from the accumulation of fire damp, or carburetted hydrogen, a gas which exudes from the coal. When mingled with air, the gas forms an explosive mixture to which many miners have owed their death. Modern miners use safety lamps, a device which yields light without danger of causing combustion, yet a carele opening of the lamp has often fired the gas and caused a fatal explosion. Such explosions are dangerous from several causes. The miners in their immediate vicinity are often instantly killed. The product of the combustion is an irrespirable choke - damp , which has slain its you sands. And the force of the explosion is apt to bring down portions of the roof and walls, and thus to imprison the miners to die a slow death from starvation and exhaustion. The only means of obviating these dangers is by a thorough ventilation of the mine, a current of air being drawn through all the workings and driving before it the dangerous gas. Enormous fans are sometimes used for this parpose, yet despite all the precautions taken, dangerous explosions and other mining accidents are of almost yearly occurrence. After Operations. The coal, when broken from the seams, is placed in wagons and drawn by mules or engine power to the bottom of the shaft, or to the mouth of the mine in cases where it has horizontally penetrated the mountain side. From the shaft-bottom it is raised to the surface by the use of ropes and winding engines, which in some mines are of great power. The men are also brought to the surface in the cages provided for lifting the coal. In the Epinac colleries in France, an interesting pneumatic system for raising coal and men is employed. An air-tight, wrought-iron tube, of 5 feet 3 inches diameter, is placed in the shaft and fitted with a piston-cage containing nine coal wagons. By the exhaustion of the air above the piston, a load of 3 tons of coal can be raised at the rate of 95 feet per minute. The cost of the plant, however, is too great for its general adoption. Coal Breakers. The large and hard ma es in which anthracite coal comes from the mine, and the popular demand for its supply in specified sizes, suitable for domestic use, have given rise to mammoth wooden structures throughout the anthracite region, known as coal breakers . At first the coal was broken by hammers on plates of iron having openings a little larger than the size required. The broken coal was then thrown against screens, through whose meshes the waste and small pieces pa ed, while the larger pieces rolled to the front, where they were loaded into wagons. But this was so costly a proce that the need of machinery to do this work became absolute, and in 1844 a satisfactory breaker was devised. This consisted of toothed rollers, geared close together and driven towards each other. The coal, pa ing between them, was broken into irregular sizes. Below them were a series of screens with apertures of different sizes, the largest meshes being in the first screen, and so on downward. Through these the coal of different sizes succe ively pa ed, being divided into the sizes technically known as "pea," "nut," "stove," "egg," "broken," "steamboat" and "lump." The slate and other larger impurities are now generally picked out by boys, who are seated beside the troughs along which the coal from each screen pa es to the chute by which it is loaded into the cars. These pieces then pa through into other troughs which carry them to the dirt and slate chutes, whence they are loaded into small dumping wagons and hauled out and dumped upon the culm banks at some distance from the breaker. The dirt or coal dust pa es through a screen of very fine mesh, though a considerable portion of what was formerly known as dirt is now separated as a very small merchantable size known as "buckwheat" coal. The anthracite coal dust, thrown upon the culm banks, has accumulated until it now forms great mounds, covering acres of ground and from 25 to more than 100 feet high. This waste material often takes fire, and may burn slowly for years, no attention being paid to it unle it endangers the breaker. Many methods have been devised to make it useful as fuel, though with little effect until recently. At the present time furnaces are largely in use which directly consume this waste material. Coaling Stations, n. ( Navy .) Oceanic localities at which the naval ve els of a station may obtain a supply of coal in regions remote from the home ports, and thus be kept in condition for service in any part of the world. To this nece ity the U. S. has hitherto paid little attention, and no nation has done so to anything like the extent of Great Britain, whose great fleet calls for means of keeping it always effective. In addition to the numerous colonies of Great Britain in all regions of the earth, many small localities have been obtained by purchase or seizure, at which supplies of coal are kept for use in case of need by any ve el of the navy. These outposts of the British nation are fortified and serve as bases of defence for the widespread commercial fleet of that nation, in addition to their utility in keeping a supply of the chief requisite of activity in modern war ve els. The U. S. po e es a few such stations, but the lack of colonial po e ions, or of a merchant fleet comparable to that of Great Britain, has hitherto made them of minor nece ity, though there are evidences of a gradually awakening sentiment in favor of the establishment of such stations for our own fleets, Coal'ton, in Ohio , a post-village of Jackson co. Pop. (1897) abt. 1,900. Coalville, in Utah , a town, the cap. of Summit co., on Union Pacific R.R., 22 m. N. of Park City. Pop . (1897) abt. 1,700. Coan, TITUS, mi ionary, was b. in Killing worth, Conn., Feb. 1, 1801. He completed his education at Auburn Seminary, graduating in 1833. After his marriage, in 1834, he sailed for the Hawaiian Islands. His labors at Hilo station covered a period of forty-seven years, during which time he made 14.000 converts among the natives. The volcanic mountain, Kilauea, was in his parish. He constantly observed its phenomena, and is the author of a number of papers upon volcanic action in Hawaii. His books comprise Adventures in Patagonia and Life in Hawaii. Died in Hilo, Dec. 1, 1882, Coast and Geodetic Survey. A bureau of the U. S. Treasury Department, whose purpose is the obtaining an accurate knowledge of the waters adjoining the coast of this country and of the surface conditions of the land area. This is the oldest scientific bureau of the U. S. government, the first suggestion concerning it being made by Thomas Jefferson, and the first act relating to it being pa ed by Congre in 1807, during Jefferson's administration. This gave him authority to inaugurate such survey of the American waters, which was to designate the islands, shoals and places of anchorage within 20 leagues of the coast. The execution of this work was a igned to Ferdinand R. Ha ler, a Swi of long experience in similar work. But the war that followed, the failure of Congre to provide the nece ary funds, and other obstacles, so interfered with its beginning, that very little work was done until after 1832, in which year Congre was first induced to make an appropriation for the work, which was again placed under Mr. Ha ler's direction. This was the real beginning of the survey, though after his appointment in 1807 he had instruments specially constructed for the work and made other nece ary preparations. He was now authorized to employ astronomers and such other experts as were nece ary, while officers of the army and navy were detailed to a ist in his duties. Mr. Ha ler was excellently adapted for the work, and at the start set a high standard of attainment, introducing a curate standards of length and measure, while he constructed for the government equally accurate standards of weight and measure. The work began by the measurement of a base-line near New York, from which triangulation measurements were extended east to Rhode Island and south to Chesapeake Bay. The topography and hydrography of this region were studied and many charts of its waters i ued. Mr. Ha ler died in 1843, and was succeeded by Alexander Dallas Bache, under whom the scope of the work greatly expanded, the system of triangulation was enlarged, and the Pacific coast was included in the survey. During the Civil War the work was practically suspended, but was immediately afterwards resumed on an enlarged scale, principally under Benjamin Pierce, Prof. Bache dying in 1867 after a long illne . Under Prof. Pierce the system of land triangulation was iLaugurated, and the whole country brought under the scope of the survey. Since 1874, when Prof. Pierce's service ended, several others have filled the post of director of the survey. -Operations. The plan of the survey has grown and developed as the result of many years of experience, new features being added or dis carded as practice proved their value or inutility. The work has two great divisions, field operations, and office registry, examination and computation, the production of charts being an important portion of the office work. In the field work a system of primary triangulation, combined with the determination of geographical position by astronomical observations, forms the basis of the whole survey. A chain of triangles has been extended from Bangor, Me., to the Gulf of Mexico, which serves as a basis for the coast triangulation, and will, when fully completed and studied, be of much value in a comprehension of the true figure of the earth. A second extensive system of triangles has been carried acro the continent, following the 39th parallel. These primary base lines have formed the foundations of extensions of the system in New York and New England and in some of the western States. The longest lines drawn are those in California, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado, the most extended of all being that from Mt. Helena to Mt. Shasta, 190 miles in length. The coast survey has completed a tertiary triangulation, for topographic and hydrographic purposes along the entire Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and more than half that of the Pacific States. Much has also been done in the survey of the Alaska coast. The topographic operations have principally been confined to a width of from 3 to 5 miles along the coast, following its harbors, bays and rivers up to the head of tide water, though in some localities it has been more extensive. The hydrographic observations have extended as far from the coast as the interests of navigation demanded, and have included harbors and other navigable inland waters. Extensive deep-sea soundings have been made, particularly in the Gulf Stream, and other highly important work done. When it is considered that the coast line of the United States thus surveyed, including Alaska, is about 30,000 miles long, we may estimate the extensive character of this work, In addition to the operations described, a system of precise or geodetic leveling, extending acro the continent, nearly in the line of the chain of triangles, and checked by lines extending to the Gulf, the Great Lakes and other points, is in proce of execution. The publications of the survey have been very numerous, including charts, coast-pilot's or sailing directions, tide-tables, and notices to mariners, an annual Report , of which about 5,000 copies are i ued, two volumes descriptive of the deep-sea dredgings, and various bulletins describing special features in the progre of the work. Coast'al Plain. A title designating the lowlands of the United States between the Appal a chi an mountain chain and the Atlantic ocean, and also those bordering the Gulf of Mexico and extending northward in the Mi i ippi valley to the mouth of the Ohio. Elsewhere it is from 50 to 200 miles broad, while its full extent is from New York Bay to the State of Vera Cruz, in Mexico. These lowlands are the result of an oceanic uplift in a recent geological age, its formations resting against older and more elevated land, from which its streams usually descend in cataracts. A line connecting these cataracts is known as the "Fall Line," and considered the boundary of the C. P. Coat'bridge, a thriving mining and manufacturing town of Scotland, co. Lanark, 8 m. E. of Glasgow. Immense quantities of iron are smelted here. Pop . 16,200. Cobb, HOWELL, an American politician, born in Jefferson co., Ga., in 1815. In 1843 he was returned to Congre by the Democratic party, and after being twice reëlected, was nominated Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1849. In 1851-2 he held the governorship of Georgia, and in 1857 was appointed Secretary of the Treasury, by President Buchanan, which post he resigned in 1860. In Feb., 1861, he became president of the Confederate Congre , and afterwards a major-general of the Confederate army. Died in 1868. Cobbe, FRANCES POWER, a rationalistic writer, was born in Dublin, Ireland, Dec. 4, 1822. She gave much of her time to charitable work, and for several years was a ociated with Mary Carpenter in the ragged schools near Bristol. The practice of vivisection being condemned by her, she founded a society in London to restrain it. Her works are numerous, and include The Scientific Spirit of the Age, and Other Pleas and Discu ions; An Octave of E ays; Papers on Vivisection, . Coch'ran, JOHN, general, was born at Palatine, Montgomery co., N. Y., Aug. 27, 1813. He was educated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., graduating in 1831. Subsequently was admitted to the bar. He has filled at succeeding periods a number of public offices, and performed active service in the Civil War, After his resignation from the army in 1863 on account of ill health, he was nominated for Vice-President on the Fremont ticket. Subsequently was appointed Attorney-General of N. Y. Served in the city councils and was Mayor of New York city during the investigations which disclosed the iniquities of the Tweed ring. Cochrane, ALEXANDER DUNDAS ROSS WISHART BAILLIE, British author, son of Admiral C .; was b. in Nov., 1816, and was educated at Eton, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was returned to Parliament in the years 1841, 1847, 1859, and 1870. He has published The Morea , a poem ; The State of Greece; Young Italy , . Cock burn ( co'burn ), SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND, Bart., a British jurist; born in London in 1802. He was a student of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, was called to the bar in 1829, and was appointed Q. C. in 1841. He held at subsequent periods a number of prominent public offices, one of the last appointments being that of chief justice of the Queen's bench in 1859. Was one of the arbitrators for the settlement of the Alabama claims, and in 1873 was created a K. C. B. He was eloquent as an orator, and prominent as a lawyer. Died in London, Nov. 21, 1880. Cock'erill, JOHN A., an eminent journalist, was born in Ohio in 1847. Served as a boy in the Union Army at the battle of Shiloh, 1862, and subsequently; and after the war began his career as a journalist at Cincinnati. He later became editor of the St. Louis Post - Dispatch , and then of the New York World and Advertiser , besides filling other important editorial positions. Was for some time president of the New York Pre Club. Went to Japan and China as special correspondent during the Chino-Japanese War, and died at Cairo, in Egypt, while on his way home, April 10, 1896. Cock'ran, WILLIAM BOURKE, was born in Ireland, Feb. 28, 1854, and educated in France and his native country. Removed to America in 1871, and made that country his future residence. He engaged as a teacher, at the same time reading law, and was called to the bar in 1876. His oratorical powers have made him widely known. He has been a member of several Congre es, and a prominent leader in Tammany Hall. Co'cum Oil, n. (Chem.) A solid oil or vegetable Cod'ling (or Cod'lin) Moth. (Entom.) Carpocapsa pomonella , a small moth whose larva is a serious enemy to the fruit grower, it being the well-known worm which is found within and near the core of the apple. The eggs are laid in the blo oms at the time of the shedding of the petals. Spraying with Paris green during blo oming season is the usual remedy. Cod'rington, SIR WILLIAM JOHN, G.C.B., soldier, was born in Nov., 1804. He received his education at Harrow and Sand hurst, and in 1821 entered the army. His gallant service at Alma and Inkerman brought him distinction. He was commander of the attack on the redan of Sebastopol in September, 1855, and during the same year was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in the Crimea. In 1859 he was made Governor of Gibraltar, and subsequently was promoted to the rank of general. Died Aug. 8, 1884. Cælebogyne (se-le-bo-je'ne), n. ( Bot .) A genus of plants, order Eu phorbiaceæ, found in the E. tropical portion of New Holland, and represented by C. ilicifo lia , a bush which in everything but its flowers is very like the common holly. The inconspicuous green flowers are male and female on different plants. The fruit is a three lobed capsule, about the size of a pea, with 3 cells, each of which contains Fig . 2789.-CELEBOGYNE ILICIFOLIA. one seed. Coffer-dam, n. (Engineering.) A structure made to exclude water, in executing works of marine and river engineering, by the use of which work may be prosecuted in areas below the water-level with nearly as much facility as on dry land. They are formed in various ways, being sometimes made with a single and sometimes with a double inclosure; in the latter case clay or chalk is rammed in between the two, to keep out the water. Generally a coffer-dam is made by driving a number of timber piles close together, in two or more rows, according to the nature of the bottom and the depth of water. The distance between the rows varies from four to ten feet, and the space is filled up with puddled clay. In some cases coffer-dams are made with only one row of piles, backed up with a bank of clay. When the bottom consists of rock, and piles cannot be driven, they are generally formed, when the depth of water allows, of two stone walls, the space between them being filled with clay or some other substance. A device invented by McKilloh is the per table coffer-dam, which provides a valuable means of thoroughly examining or repairing any part of a ve el, from her keel to her water-line while afloat, and even when submerged. The apparatus consists of a large sheet of waterproof canvas, at each end of which is a tubular bag, which is filled with air on the canvas being hauled taut under a ve el's side, when the whole is made air and water-tight by the pre ure on the outer surface. The volume of water contained in the interior of the canvas is then pumped out, and the canvas being distended by a frame-work of iron, a dry space is kept clear to allow of men repairing any damage the ship may have sustained. Coffey ville, in Kansas , a fine city of Montgomery co., 76 m. S. S. W. of Fort Scott; the trade center of a rich farming and stock-raising district. Pop . (1897) about 3,900. Cof'fin, CHARLES CAR LET ON, journalist and lecturer, was born in Boscawen, N. H., July 26, 1823. During the period of the Civil War he was war correspondent of the Boston Journal, and was the author of a number of popular historical books for boys, descriptive of revolutionary times. They include Boys of '76; Story of Lib erty; Old Times in the Colonies , . Died March 2, 1896. Coffin, WILLIAM ANDERSON, landscape and figure painter, was born in Allegheny City, Pa., Jau. 31, 1855. He graduated from Yale College in the cla of 1874; afterwards studied with Bonnat, in Paris. He received from the Society of American Artists the Webb prize for landscape. He has been made a member of the former society and of the Architectural League, in New York. The Metropolitan Museum in N. Y., owns his picture of The Rain. Among his other works are the Mandolin Player , An Examination , Close of Day, Early Moonrise , . Cohn'heim, JULIUS FRIED RICH, a German pathologist, was born July 20, 1839, at Demmin, Pomerania. He was a student in the Universities of Berlin, Würzburg, Griefs wald, and Prague. He followed for a short period the medical profe ion in Berlin, held several profe orships, and was also director of the Leipsic Institute of Pathology. He made many original researches in the fields of anatomy, histology, and pathology and was the author of Die Tuberkulose vom Standpunkte der Infectionslehre Vorlesungen über All gem eine Pathologie , . Died in 1884. used respecting apparatus employed for electrical current induction. The wire which transmits the current from the battery-that is the inducing wire-is called the primary coil. The secondary coil is the circuit which the induced current traverses. The primary coil is made of rather thick wire, and not very long, in order that the current from the battery may not be too much weakened by resistance. The secondary coil, on the contrary, is made of the finest po ible wire, and of great length, in order that a very large number of turns of it may be brought under the influence of the primary coil. The advantage gained by increasing the number of turns, and getting them near to the coil in which the current is pa ing, far more than counterbalances the disadvantages arising from increasing the resistance. It is nece ary that the several turns of the secondary coil should be very carefully insulated from each other, for the induced electricity will otherwise leap acro , instead of pa ing round each turn wire. For this reason the wire, as it is coiled on, is covered with the layers of shellac or gutta-perch a. Coke, Manufacture of. Coke is the residue obtained from bituminous coal by distillation or heating with almost complete exclusion of air. It is produced in the manufacture of gas, as a by-product, and is also specially manufactured in ovens, being employed in the melting of pig-iron, and the smelting of iron, copper and lead. C. was first used with succe in the production of pig-iron in England in the year 1735, and became commonly used after 1750. In the U. S. little use was made of it for this purpose until after 1837, and the first attempt at its regular manufacture was made, without succe , in 1841, in the Connelsville region of Pennsylvania, now the principal seat of what has become an important American industry. It was not until 1860 that the regular production of C. began in that region. In the manufacture of C. the early method resembled that used in the production of charcoal, the coal being heaped in mounds covered with earth. The work is now generally performed in brick or stone ovens, the standard or "beehive" oven being usually 5 or 6 feet high and 11 or 12 wide in inside dimensions. A railroad track runs along a bank of such ovens, and charges them with coal through openings in their tops. The proce of coking occupies from 57 to 72 hours, at the end of which time the coal is deprived of its volatile constituents. The coke is now raked from the oven through an orifice in its side, cooled by drenching with water, and loaded into railroad cars for transportation. To some extent coke ovens of more elaborate construction are used, these being ma ive fire-brick chambers, with side and bottom flues through which the waste gases are conducted to be burnt for the more rapid heating of the coke. From these ovens the coke is discharged by a machine called the "pusher," which forces it bodily out. These ovens do much quicker work, yield more, and permit the use of inferior grades of coal, while also saving the copious by-products tar and ammonia. In Germany, where these ovens are largely used, the value of the by-products more than pays the expenses of the manufacture. In the U. S., in 1890, there were about 33,000 coke ovens, yielding nearly 9,000,000 tons of coke from about 13,000,000 tons of coal. C. is most largely manufactured in Pennsylvania, which yields three fourths of all the coke made, more than one-half the total product being made in the Connelsville district. Here is a large field of coal suitable for coking, forming a basin 3 miles wide and 50 miles long, whose beds hold from 8 to 10 feet of workable coal. West Virginia, Alabama, and Tenne ee follow in succe ion, and C. is also made in Colorado for the use of local lead and copper smelters. Colby University. ( Educ .) An institution under Baptist supervision, situated at Waterville, Me. Chartered by Ma achusetts in 1814, it began operations in 1818, and was chartered in 1820 by the first Maine legislature, under the name of Waterville College. Its present name was adopted in 1867, in recognition of a large endowment made by Gardner Colby, a Boston merchant. There are here six large college buildings, besides a gymnasium and observatory. In 1891 "co education of men and women" was changed into "coordinate colleges." Men and women pursue identical courses under the same instructors, if they so elect, but are separate in their studies and recitations. The president is Rev. Nathaniel Rutter (1897). There are 15 instructors and 225 students, and an endowment of nearly $500,000. Col'chester, in Illinois , a thriving town of McDonough co., 53 m. N. E. of Quincy, on C., B. & Q. R. R. Coal is extensively mined, the annual output averaging about 100,000 tons. Pop . (1897) abt. 2,100. Cold Storage. ( Com .) A method of preserving perishable food materials by keeping them in a low temperature until needed for consumption. This is done by the aid of freezing machines similar in principle to those used in the manufacture of artificial ice, but in this case employed in reducing the temperature of the air to the required degree. Cold storage warehouses now exist in all our principal cities, in which meats and fruits may be kept in an unchanged condition for an indefinite period, and the fruits and game of summer easily preserved for use on midwinter tables. They are also used in connection with large markets to keep unsold material from one market day to another, and also largely in transportation of perishable material by ship or car. Meats thus preserved need to be used immediately on being thawed out, as they show a disposition to spoil much more quickly than unfrozen meats, and may, from unobserved putrefactive changes, in some instances, prove injurious. Cold Wave. (Meteorol.) The name given to spells of severe depre ion of temperature in the United States, these being due to persistent winds from the north-west, which spread over the country the chill conditions of the great plains of western Canada. The chill seems to be due to anti-cyclonic conditions, which bring down to the surface the cold air of the upper atmosphere, and cause it to flow out over the southern and eastern U. S. These spells of severe cold usually continue for about three days, sometimes longer, and are attended with clear skies and sunny weather. Coles, COWPER PHIPPS, a British naval officer and inventor, born in co. Hants, 1819. In 1855 he was employed by his government to devise a new system of armored ships, on the turret plan, which should be adapted to render them sea-going ve els rather than simple harbor defences. He succeeded in producing two of the finest sailing-ships that ever floated-the Captain and the Monarch ; but the former, though in other respects perfect, had the radical defect of being unmanageable in very heavy weather, so that she foundered in the Bay of Biscay in Sept., 1870, with all hands, including her constructor, who was on board. Coleus, n. ( Bot .) A genus of African and East Indian plants of the mint family ( Labiate ), containing numerous species and widely cultivated for ornamental purposes on account of their attractive and often variegated foliage. Col'fax, in Washington , a fine town, the cap . of Whitman co., on the O. R. & Nav. Co. R. R., 85 m. N. E. of Walla Walla. Has planing mills, flour mills, and machine shops, and is the trading center of a farming and lumbering region. Pop . (1897) abt. 2,000. College de France. ( Educ .) Originally a College de Trois Langues, founded by Francis I. in 1530, now a very important educational institution, with a wide field of instruction in literature, science, and history. Its profe ors have included some of the most distinguished scholars and scientists of France, such as Renan, Laboulaye, Gaston de Paris, and BrownSequard. College Frater'nities. A cla of secret organizations instituted among the students of American colleges, whose secrecy, however, amounts to little more than a knowledge of grips and pa -words. These fraternities, which are usually named from the letters of the Greek alphabet-whence they are known as "Greek letter Societies"-extend often through many colleges, their lodges being called "chapters," of which no college can have more than one. Some of the larger colleges, however, have as many as 25 chapters of different fraternities. The first of these fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa, was organized at William and Mary College, Virginia, in 1776. It ceased to exist in 1786, on account of exigencies arising from the Revolutionary War: but chapters had been organized at Harvard and Yale, which established branches elsewhere. It soon ceased to be a secret organization, and became a literary society, геquiring high scholarship for admi ion to its rauks. It still exists as an honorary society, having been revived in 1881. Of the existing general fraternities, the first, the Kappa Alpha , was founded at Union College, in 1825. It was opposed by the faculty and students, from its small membership and secret meetings, but was followed in 1827 by two others in the same college- Sigma Phi and Delta Phi -and in 1832 by Alpha Delta Phi , at Hamilton College. From this time on the system spread with much rapidity, so that at the present time there are 28 such fraternities in the U. S., with 650 active and 350 inactive chapters and a membership of 100,000. They own 70 houses or halls in the various college towns. Woman students have also their fraternities, of which 11 now exist, the oldest being the Pi Beta Phi , founded at Mon mouth in 1867. The aim of the members of these societies is purely social, though the chapters may occupy themselves with any work or exercises which they think likely to prove of benefit. They po e a considerable literature, in the form of catalogues, histories, song-books and magazines, and publish numerous fraternity journals, the oldest still extant being the Beta Theta Pi, i ued by the society of that name in 1827, and still published as a monthly. The women's societies have a number of similar periodicals, the oldest being the Golden Key (1882), now called the Key . Colleges for Women. ( Educ .) Collegiate education for women is of very recent institution, it being generally held, until about half a century ago, that women were incapable of grasping the higher subjects of education and that an effort to do so was likely to unfit them for their duties in life. This theory is still extant in a measure, but its inadequacy has been proved by many striking examples of high scholarship in women and by lack of evidence to prove that education unfits women for their life-duties. Within the period mentioned many colleges for women have been founded, and co-education of the sexes has been adopted by various collegiate institutions, so that the opportunity for woman to obtain an education equal to that obtainable by man somewhat widely exists. The seminary for women at Mt. Holyoke, Ma ., founded in 1837, was for many years regarded as the foremost institution for the education of women in this country. But with the advance of years higher conceptions arose, and in 1855 Elmira College took its stand as the first college organization founded and generously equipped exclusively for the education of women. Others of high grade followed; Va ar College in 1861, Wellesley College in 1875, Smith College in the same year, and Bryn Mawr College in 1885. These, though nominally and properly colleges, are higher in grade than many of the so-called universities of this country, some of them placing their standard so high as to be difficult of attainment by either sex. This is particularly the case of Bryn Mawr, which is specially organized for the needs of graduate students, and has a severe admi ion requirement. The degrees conferred in these colleges are the same as those given in colleges for men. The opportunities offered to women for higher education are by no means confined to these special institutions, since many of the other colleges of the country have opened their doors to them. In 1834 Oberlin College, Ohio, the pioneer among the larger colleges in this work, was founded for the education of "both sexes and all colors." Co-education has since been adopted in many other colleges. The University of Iowa offered equal advantages to men and women in 1860. The Universities of Michigan and other States quickly followed, and the institutions founded on a denominational basis have so generally adopted a similar regulation that co-education may now be regarded as the general rule in the newer institutions west of the Alleghanies. The Leland Stanford, Jr. University of California, and the University of Chicago, the two most richly endowed educational institutions in the U. S., make no distinction between men and women scholars. This has not been the case with the older and more conservative institutions of the East, which have resisted this modern innovation on their long established standard, though certain opportunities for advanced education have been given to women in some of the most prominent of these institutions, such as Harvard University and the University of Pennsylvania. Several of the newer Eastern universities, however, have placed women in the same rank with men. In profe ional education, women have given their attention to medicine, the Woman's Medical College of Philadelphia being the pioneer in this field of instruction. Opportunities for education in medicine, law and theology have been offered somewhat widely to women in other collegiate institutions, and large numbers have taken up the study of medicine, with the result of giving this country an extensive corps of women physicians. To the other profe ions named le attention has been paid. The rapid advance thus made in the higher education of women in the U. S. has been followed, though more slowly, in Europe. The great English colleges of Oxford and Cambridge have, while refusing to confer academic degrees upon women, founded special colleges for their instruction, in which they receive education from profe ors of the highest standing. Women are admitted to lectures at Paris and in a few of the German universities, though not examined for degrees. The higher degrees, however, are conferred upon women at a few of the European institutions of learning, of which the University of Zurich stands highest. Colleges in America. The first American college was Harvard, founded at Cambridge, Ma ., in 1636. William and Mary College, Virginia, and Yale College, Connecticut, followed during that century, and in the succeeding century a considerable number were organized, all following the med iæval model of the British colleges, and giving preponderating importance to the study of the cla ical languages and literature and mathematics. This system continued until well into the 19th century, being adopted by the many colleges instituted during the first half of that century, though an organized movement against the narrowne of college studies had begun, led by Presidents Way land and Nott, of Brown University and Union College respectively. Shortly after 1800 President Barnard, of Columbia College, proved by statistics that there was a steady decrease, in comparison with the population, in the number of students going to American colleges, a fact which he ascribed to di atisfaction with the limitation of studies. He was followed by President Tappan, of Michigan University, in 1852, with the bold declaration that science and modern languages and history should have at least equal attention with ancient languages and mathematics, and remodeled the course of studies in the college under his charge on this theory. The change added so much to the prosperity of the university that other State institutions adopted it, and before many years the colleges founded on the old model found it nece ary to remodel their cla es and studies in accordance with the new spirit and demands. Greek, Latin, and the mathematics retained their prominence in the first two years of the course, but in the later years science, history, economics, modern literature, ., received a recognition never accorded them before. In addition, technical studies were introduced, colleges of engineering, architecture and agriculture were established, and the higher institutions of learning in the country gradually adapted their courses of study to the live needs of the present day, no longer insisting on inordinate attention to dead i ues and abstruse erudition, of no use in practical life. One natural result of this change has been conservatism in some instances, radicalism in others, and a resulting lack of uniformity in the requirements for admi ion to colleges, the studies pursued and the requisites for graduation. It may be said, however, that, as a rule, the standard of requirement for admi ion has advanced and that the average age of admi ion is two years greater than a half century ago. Meanwhile the number of colleges has greatly increased, their growth being greater than that of the population; this being due to the growing demand for a higher education and the rapidly increasing endowments of many colleges, which has enabled them to reduce the cost of tuition and to offer many free scholarships. One somewhat distracting feature in the United States is the absence of any legislation or regulations control-| ling the grade of educational institutions, so that the titles of academy, college, and university have become largely interchangeable, and there are institutions bearing the lofty title of "University" to which that of "high school" would be more applicable. Of so-called "universities" in the United States there are not le than 120; of real ones there is le than a tenth of this number. Of institutions claiming rank as universities and colleges in the United States at the beginning of 1897 there were in all 476, with a total of 10,897 profe ors and instructors and 143,632 students, productive funds amounting in all to nearly $100,000,000, and a total income from interest, tuition fees and appropriations of $15,365,612. Col'lier, JOHN PAYNE, a Shake spear i an commentator and bibliographer, born in London, 1789; was descended from the famous Jeremy Collier. He abandoned the bar for a more congenial pursuit of literature. He wrote many e ays, among them the following: Political Decameron (1820), Political Pilgrimage (1822), an edition of Dobson's Old Plays (1825); New Facts Regarding the Life of Shakespeare (1836), followed by Neur Particulars , and in 1839 by Further Particulars . His Life of Shakespeare (1842-4) was the result of twenty years' research. A flerce controversy arose because of his advocating the authenticity and value of certain marginal notes found in an early folio copy of Shake peare. His last production was a Bibliographical Ac count of Rare Books (1865). C. drew a pension from the government for his services in literature, and was vice president of the Antiquarian Society. Died in 1883. Colling wood, FRANCIS, civil engineer, was born at Elmira, N. Y., Jan. 10, 1834. He graduated from the Ren elaer Polytechnic Institute in 1855. A number of positions either as a istant or chief engineer have been held by him. His writings comprise numerous important papers on the subject of engineering. He was awarded the Telford premium and the Telford medal by the Institution of Civil Engineers of Great Britain, for his paper on repairs to the Alleghany Suspension Bridge. Several engineering societies of this country and of Europe have elected him a member; he is also fellow of the American A ociation for the Advancement of Science, a member of the New York Microscopical Society, and of the Academy of Science of New York. Coll'yer, ROBERT, D.D., Unitarian clergyman, was born in Keighly, England, Dec. 8, 1823. He came to America in early manhood. Previous to his adoption of the Unitarian belief in 1859 he had been a Methodist lay preacher, at the same time laboring as a mechanic. His first pastorate was Unity Church in Chicago, 1859. In 1879, he accepted a call to the church of the Me iah in New York, where he still remains (1897). He is the author of A Man in Earnest; Talks to Young Men; The Simple Truth , . Col'onies of Europe. Within recent years there has been so marked an extension of the colonial system of Europe, that some attention to this subject seems here called for. Spain alone has fallen off in the extent and importance of her colonial po e ions. The rapid growth of the colonies of the other leading nations of Europe can be readily made evident by a comparison. Twenty years ago the colonies of Great Britain covered 7,600,000 sq. miles, with a population of 200,000,000. To-day the British Empire covers 11,000,000 sq. miles, of which only 120,000 are in the United Kingdom. The population of the colonies is 340,000,000. This immense acce ion of territory is largely due to a great extension of the British colonial po e ions in Africa. France in 1776 had foreign po e ions, exclusive of Algeria, of 460,000 sq. miles, with 2,500,000 population. She now has 2,900,000 sq. miles, with 21,000,000 population. This acce ion has been in Indo-China and Africa, in which latter country the area of French territory is rapidly extending. Germany in 1776 had no colonies. This country now has po e ions in Africa of over 800,000 sq. miles in area, with about 6,000,000 population, and extensive claims in New Guinea. The colonies of the Netherlands then covered 666,000 sq. miles, which have now increased to 760,000, with an increase in population from 24,000,000 to 29,000,000. Belgium then had no colonies. Its dependency of the Congo Free State now covers 800,000 sq. miles, with 8,000,000 or more population. Italy has gained in the interval about 300,000 sq. miles, but has lost nearly the whole of it through her unfortunate Aby in i an war. The other nations remain with little change, Denmark having about 86,000 sq. miles of colonies in Iceland, Green land and the West Indies; Norway and Sweden one small island; Portugal 848,000 sq. miles in Africa and Asia, and Spain maintaining a precarious hold on Cuba and the Philippines. Ru ia has greatly increased by Asiatic acce ions; these, however, are not maintained as colonies, but made a constituent part of the empire. Colorado Beetle. (Entom.) Chrysomela or Doryphora decemlineata, a beetle of North America which is exceedingly destructive to the potato plant. It was first discovered by Thomas Say in 1824, near the upper Mi ouri, but was not known in the East until 1873, when it made its way from Nebraska and Iowa, reaching the Atlantic by 1876, and everywhere causing great ravages to the potato crops, by consuming the leaves of the plant. It is now kept in a degree of subjection by the free use of Paris green. The insects are of small size, oval in shape, and of orange color, marked by black lines and spots. They pa the winter underground, but in the spring the female lays her eggs on the under side of the potato leaves, while a second and even a third generation may be produced in the same summer. They multiply, therefore, with great rapidity. Color a'do City, in Colorado , a city of El Paso co., on the D. & R. G. R. R., 2 m. from Colorado Springs. Pop . (1897) about 2,250. Colorado College. ( Educ .) An institution for higher education, situated at Colorado Springs, Col. Its location in the Rocky Mountain region offers excellent opportunities for the study of geology, mining, metallurgy and similar branches, and much attention is paid to scientific work. It was opened in 1874 and was completely reorganized in 1888, adopting a high standard of work. In 1897 there were 32 instructors and 267 students. Colorado Desert. ( Geog .) An arid basin of the Southwest U. S., adjoining the lower Colorado river, including the Coahuila Valley and the Yuma Desert. The lower part of the Coahuila Valley, an area of 17,000 sq. m., lies below the ocean level, and formerly composed a northern section of the Gulf of California, from which it has been cut off by the delta deposits at the mouth of the Colorado river. This delta extended from east to west until it finally shut out the sea, converting the valley into a fresh-water lake, which finally disappeared, leaving the present arid space. Occasionally, during flood, a part of the waters of the river overflow into the Coahuila Valley. Such was the case in 1891, when a portion of it was converted into a shallow pool called Salton Lake. Colorado Springs, in Colorado , a fine city, cap . of El Paso co., on 4 lines of R. R., 75 m. S. of Denver. The medicinal springs and fine scenery at Manitou Springs, 5 m. distant, have made this place a famous and fashionable health resort, especially for those suffering from pulmonary diseases. Colorado College and a Deaf Mute Institute are here located. Pop . (1890) 11,140; (1897) about 15,000. Colorado, University of. ( Educ .) A State institution of learning, situated at Boulder, Col., 28 m. N.W. of Denver, where it was founded in 1876. This institution is supported by the State and offers tuition free, students being only at the cost of self-support. It has a medical department-the Denver Medical College-a course in law, and collegiate and post-graduate courses leading to the master's and doctor's degree in art, science and letters. Its instructors numbered 69, and its students over 600, in 1897. Color-line, n. A distinction social, political, or otherwise, made between white persons and those wholly or partly of negro blood. -n. pl. A series of parallel lines on a heraldic device, whose direction denotes the tincture. Color phobia, n. An unusual expre ion denoting aversion to colored persons. Col'ton, in California , a town of San Bernard i no co., 3 m. S. of San Bernard i no. Marble, lime, and brick are produced in large quantities; there are also flour mills, cannery, . In a fruit-growing region. Pop . (1897) about 1,600. Columbian Exposition, World's. An international exposition of industry and science, held at Chicago, in 1893, in commemoration of the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. Chicago having been chosen as the city of the exhibition, a site was selected at Jackson Park, 6 m. S. from the central portion of the city and fronting on Lake Michigan for 11⁄2 miles. To this was added a broad avenue extending to Washington Park, a mile westward, and known during the Fair as the Midway Plaisance, the whole area included being 613 acres. As it was found imposвsible to have the proposed buildings constructed in time to hold the Fair in 1892, the true anniversary, elaborate and imposing dedicatory ceremonies were held on Oct. 23, of that year (corresponding to Oct. 12, old style, the date of discovery by Columbus). These ceremonies took place in the presence of 130,000 people, the Vice President of the U. S. performing the ceremony of dedication. The formal opening of the Exposition took place May 1, 1893, President Cleveland declaring the Fair open and setting in motion the great Allis engine. The architectural preparations for the Fair were on a grand scale, and presented a most imposing effect, the buildings being largely of cla ical architecture and covered externally by a white coating, called staff, which at a distance gave them the effect of white marble edifices. In this respect the Exposition was a marvellous succe , so imposing and beautiful an architectural group having never before been brought together. The main exhibition building, that of Manufacturers and Liberal Arts was of enormous dimensions (787 by 1,687 feet). The other principal edifices included those for Machinery, Ag i culture, Electricity, Mining, Transportation, Fisheries, Horticulture, Fine Arts, Forestry, Woman's Work, and Administration, while there were numerous State, national and other edifices, the whole numbering about 150 The effect of the buildings was largely added to by the landscape preparations, in which artificial canals and lagoons played a prominent part, the adjoining lake lending easy aid to an effective use of its waters. In truth, it was the out-door aspect of the Exposition that attracted most particularly the admiration of visitors, it being pronounced unrivalled for unity of effect and combined architectural and landscape beauty. It is doubtful if anything has ever been seen equalling the Court of Honor, the space fronted by the imposingly beautiful Administration Building, flanked by those of Liberal Arts and Agriculture, and faced on the lakefront by the grand Peristyle, with its Music Hall and Casino; the center being occupied by a broad Basin, adorned with animal sculpture, and displaying at its two ends of the colo al statue of the Republic and the grand McMonnies fountain. Of the cla of exhibits, that of electricity was the most novel, nearly everything shown having had its development since the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, while the Midway Plaisance, with its many amusing and instructive exhibits, seemed to afford most pleasure to visitors. Midway in this rose the gigantic revolving Ferris Wheel, the one especial novelty of the Fair. Of other special exhibits of importance may be mentioned the reproductions of the La Rabida convent, of the flag-ship of Columbus, and of an ancient Viking war-ve el. The spectacular effects of the exhibition were largely due to the electric lights, which were profusely displayed, while electric barges traversed the waters and an electric elevated railroad carried visitors about the grounds. The closing day was Oct. 30, the paid admi ions during the 6 months of the Fair having been 272,712 daily, and the greatest attendance on Chicago Day, Oct. 9, when 716,887 persons visited the grounds. The total cost of the Exposition proper was about $25,500,000, which the expenditures of the State aud U. S. governments and of foreign countries, raised to over $40,000,000. The total receipts were $28,151,168, and the profit on the Fair about $1,850,000. Most of the large buildings were destroyed by incendiary fires after the Fair. The Fine Arts Building has been preserved as a permanent memorial, and here is installed the Field Columbian Museum, richly endowed by Marshall Field and others, and opening with a collection whose value is estimated at $2,000,000. Columbian'a, in Ohio , a fine town of Columbiana co., on P., F. W. & C. R. R., 23 m. E. of Alliance. Has various manufacturing interests and abundance of coal near by. Pop . (1897) about 1,700. Co'ma, n. [Abbreviated from Coma Berenices, Berenice's Hair.] ( Astron .) One of Ptolemy's northern constellations. Doubtle this star-group originally belonged to the constellation Leo. It consists of a somewhat widely dispersed cluster of small stars. Com'et, n. [Lat. comet a; Gr. komētēs , trom komē , hair]. (Astron.) Comets are heavenly bodies distinguished from all other such bodies with which we are familiar by the apparently irregular character of their visits to our sky, their erratic motions and, when visible to unaided vision, their extraordinary and portentous aspect. Comets are generally visible for only a few weeks or, at most, for two or three months, when they slowly fade away and disappear from view. In these respects they are so different from the stars and planets, which endure from age to age, that they were formerly looked upon as supernatural visitors, sent to warn mankind of the approach of great calamities. But modern science has removed every cause of alarm by showing that their motions, notwithstanding their seemingly erratic character, are governed by the law of gravitation. Comets visible to the naked eye have occasionally appeared since the beginning of recorded history. Roughly speaking their number has generally ranged between fifteen and thirty in a century, so that they have appeared, on an average, at intervals of a few years. Only a few, say two or three in a century, have been so bright as to excite universal attention and give rise to widespread alarm. But, with the aid of the telescope, it is now found