CRUSADES

name for series of expeditions (XI.-XIII. cent’s) for the purpose of rescuing the Holy Land from infidels’ and extending the territory of Christianity. 'The immediate cause was danger to the Byzantine Empire from Seljukian Turks. Persians had conquered Me so pot am i a and northern Syria and invaded Asia Minor (603-10), when the usurper Phocas was Byzantine emperor. Under his succe or, Palestine was attacked, Jerusalem with the Holy Sepulchre fell into Persian hands, 614, and a Persian force seized Chalcedon, close to Constantinople. The Church took the lead in fitting out an army, and after a long, brilliant war, which was precedent for C., recovered the Holy Land, 628. A more important precedent was established in the wars of Mohammedanism: the ‘Star and Crescent’ was the emblem of Holy War before the Cro . The Arabs had attacked the Byzantine and Persian Empires, and captured Jerusalem, 6387. The proselytizing zeal of the Arabs, however, soon died away, Christianity on the whole being tolerated and pilgrimages allowed to Holy places. With the rise of the Seljukian Turks not only Christianity but civilization was threatened. The Turks, who had accepted Mohammedanism, established a great Mongol state in Asia under Seljuk, conquered Persia, and attacked the Eastern Empire at the’ period of its lowest decline. A decisive victory at Manzikert resulted in the capture of Jerusalem from Arabs (1071); Asia Minor was conquered; appeals were made by Emperor Alexius Comnenus to Baldwin of Flanders and Pope Urban IT. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem were naturally regarded as of greater sanctifying benefit than those to ordinary shrines, and were very often made. Under Turk. rule pilgrims were subject to great outrages; and the idea of a Holy War was taken up by Gregory VII., when the Byzantine emperor, Michael VII. begged for aid against the Turk. Envoys of Emperor Alexius appeared at Council of Clermont (1095), and Urgan II. made a speech advocating aid to Eastern Empire as incident to a larger attack on the infidel. The great object was the recovery of Holy places, but O’s were partly due to other motives, some of them secular. The Church conceived the idea of turning to pious use the warlike character of feudal society; rulers were glad to direct energies of turbulent nobles into distant channels; great nobles entertained visions: of rule in the East. A pestilence was then raging in Europe, and dearth and. civil strife made men eager to escape and try po ibilities of countries reputed to be rich. Urban’s speech was received with great enthusiasm; Peter the Hermit, monk of Amiens, wandered through France and Italy, preaching 2 Holy War. Five contingents of ‘paupers’ formed the first division, of which only two contingents (under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Pennile ) arrived at Constantinople. The whole company fell before the Turks on setting foot in Asia Minor (1097). The second division, that of the magnates, was under the general command of Adhemar, bp. of Puy, and papal legate, whose appointment by the pope marked Church origin of war. Chief leaders were: Godfrey de Bouillon, his bro’s Baldwin and Eustace, Hugh de Ver man do is, brother of king of France, Stephen, Count of Blois, Robert, Count of Flanders, Raymond, Count of Toulouse, Bohemund, Prince of Otranto, and Tancred, Duke of Apulia; they arrived at Constantinople in 1097; their force, according to tradition, numbered 300,000 men, but probably its strength was only half that number. Alexius carefully took homage of leaders for lands they might conquer from infidels, before allowing the huge army to pa on, The moment was favorable; the population of Asia Minor and Syria, groaning under military occupation of the barbarous Turk, was ready to a ist; the, Seljukian Empire, extremely decentralized, was a prey to di ensions. Jerusalem changed hands in 1098, and Asia Minor was speedily restored to Byzantine Empire; Antioch was captured and retained by Bohemund, 1098, but disputed by Raymond. Baldwin was made Count of Ede a. Led by Godfrey de Bouillon, the Crusaders, their forces diminished by fever and famine, captured Jerusalem after a month’s siege (1099); the papal legate being dead, Godfrey was made ruler as ‘advocate of the Holy Sepulchre.’ On Godfrey’s death (1100) Baldwin was crowned king of Jerusalem, and enmity to Bohemund of Antioch led to support of Latin Kingdom by the Byzantine emperor; other leaders obtained feudal lordships in the midst of the enemies’ country, Turks and Arabs not being completely expelled. Second Crusade (1147-49), Latin Kingdom failed to become permanent; the Franks could not thrive in the climate, morality suffered, Eastern vices were adopted, people were alienated by despotic rule which showed worst evil of feudal system. Ede a was captured by Mohammedans (1144); and Franks appealed to Europe. St. Bernard at request of Eugenius III. preached a C.; Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Germany took the Cro , the overlordship of territories gained being reserved to Byzantine emperor. There was disunion from the first; Byzantine emperor could not give aid because of a@ war with Sicily; the north Ger. force was diverted in a separate C. against the Wends; that of England and Netherlands went to capture Lisbon; Conrad and Louis united in Holy Land with King Baldwin III. in an unsucce ful attack on Damascus and returned. The net result was further weakening of the Latin Kingdom, Damascus conquered by Turks, 1154, and regained, 1174, was taken, 1183, by Salad in, who thus united Mohammedan realms of Egypt and of northern Syria. Jerusalem fell, 1187. Third Crusade (1189-92). At the news of the capture of the Holy City papal letters were i ued and the kings of Germany, France, and England took the Cro ; ‘Salad in tithe’ was imposed on all who did not go, while, on the other hand, Crusaders’ debts were wiped out; the finest force ever seen in the Middle Ages consequently a embled. Acre, the key to Jerusalem, already besieged by king of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan, was the first object of attack; Frederick Barb a ro a died on the way; and the German force was almost entirely destroyed; Richard Coeur de Lion turned aside to conquer Cyprus, thus becoming founder of Latin Kingdom of Cyprus, but joined French, 1191, before Acre, which surrendered shortly afterwards. Philip August us and Richard quarrelled, and the former returned to France; Richard,.unable to take Jerusalem, made a truce with Salad in, 1192, by which Christians retained only the seaboard from Jaffa to Tyre and received permi ion to visit the Holy Sepulchre. An important feature of this C. is lay initiative and subordinate religious element. Fourth Crusade (1202-4). Henry VI., emperor of Germany, took the Cro in 1195, but died (1197) before he was ready to start; from his plans, however, his real aim was to attack Byzantine Empire. Innocent III. now took up the work and sought to restore to C’s the character of a Holy War lost sight of in territorial schemes; France responded, Theobald of Champagne being chief commander, and Baldwin of Flanders and the Count of Blois being leaders. They decided to attack Egypt, chief seat of Turk. rule, as a preliminary to the recapture of Palestine; Venico lent her fleet, but once the Crusaders were embarked the schemes of Innocent III. went for naught. Persuaded by Philip of Swabia and Venetians the flotilla sailed for Constantinople, capturing Zara for Venice on its way; Constantinople was captured (1204); Baldwin of Flanders was made Byzantine emperor and the territory of Venice enlarged at expense of the Empire. Result of C. was fatal diversion of Crusaders. of north of France and Germany, despair, imagined the scheme of of Children, hoping that succe be obtained if instruments were you sands of children perished or sold as slaves (1212). Fifth Crusade (1218-21), due thusiasm of Innocent III. for of Holy places, was preached by at the fourth Later an Council, a Truce of God was proclaimed W., and trade with the infidel was bidden. Emperor Frederic II. took Cro , but delayed joining; large from Germany, however, and Austria and Hungary, again set under leadership of John de king of Jerusalem, for Egypt, and tured Damietta, 1219; the papal refused to accept terms offered Sultan, but Crusaders were driven Egypt, gaining nothing but the of the Holy Cro . Sixth Crusade (1228-29). C. of torial expansion based on alliance infidel and under the interdict church; of great interest as remarkable episode in career of Emperor II., who became titular king of salem (1225) by marriage with de Brienne. Frederick, almost a polytheist or freethinker, started the C. (1227), but, falling sick, to Italy, thus incurring papal muni cation, as Gregory IX. would credit his excuse. \Still under the ban, Frederick left Italy (1228) made a treaty (1229) with Sultan which, in return for toleration of hammed an ism, he was allowed to ceed to his kingdom of Jerusalem, Judea was ceded to the Christians. Frederick was obliged to put the on his own head as no priest would so; he was absolved by the pope Jerusalem, laid waste by Mongolian tribes (1244), was captured by in the same year. Seventh Crusade. On news of the of Jerusalem, a new crusading ment started. Papacy was again at with Emperor, and at Council of (1245) Innocent IV. preached against both Frederick II. and Louis IX. (St. Louis) of France the religious element, taking the and winning adherents; Damietta at his approach (1249), but, as in C., further progre was impo ible; being captured, he was forced to heavy ransom and to restore he went on a pilgrimage to Holy and until 1254 did penance and to organize the Christian Mohammedans, now weakened by sure of Tartar tribes and Mameluke mercenaries, became supreme in Clergy but the Latin Kingdom was torn by in di ensions. The Mameluke captain, Crusade Bibars, became Sultan (1260), and con might quered Jaffa and Antioch (1268). pure; Highth Crusade. Remaining towns of were Holy Land being threatened by Bibars, Louis TX. again took the Cro (1270), to enbut the crusading movement was dead; recapture only hired soldiers and barons bound him by feudal duty followed; an attack on 1215, Tunis failed, and Louis died of plague. in the His companion and heir, Philip the Bold, for only secured his retreat by a humiliating the truce. Council of Lyons (1274) in vain forces preached a new C.; Tripoli fell (1289) from before the succe or of Bibars; Acre forth surrendered in 1291; Cyprus alone reBrienne, mained under Christian rule. Capture cap of Rhodes by Hospitallers took place legate in 1310; an attack in the old crusading by spirit was made on Egypt and Syria by from Peter I. of Cyprus (1365-69); defensive surrender wars waged by Christians against Turks in XIV. and XV, cent’s ended (1453) terriin capture of Constantinople by Mohamwith med IT, of the The importance of the O’s in the history of civilization lies in their open Frederick ing up the East for trade, and the imJerupetus they gave to the study of war. Isabel Systematic taxation commenced during certainly C’s; France and the papacy, having on taken most important part, gained returned greatly in prestige. History, poetry, excomlanguages, and culture of European not states were all influenced. papal CRUSOE, ROBINSON. See Sx1and KIRK (ALEXANDER), Deron (DANIEL). by MoCRUSTACEA, cla of Arthropod a, pro comprising lobsters, crayfish, prawns, and shrimps, crabs, barnacles, water-fleas, wood-lice, sand-hoppers, numerous para crown sitic and an enormous number of micro do scopical forms widely distributed in all (1229). seas as constituent of the ‘plankton.’ It is difficult to characterize a group Turks consisting of such diverse members, but they generally/ have in\common,a fall chitinous coat impregnated with carbon move ate of lime, two-branched appendages, war the latter occurring on the abdomen as Lyons well as the thorax; and, on the whole, a O, they live in water.. Their development infidels. is usually indirect, several larval stages supplied being pa ed through before attaining Cro the adult form. The following are fell the more important Crustacean orders: Fifth Branchiopod a, including brine-shrimps and the primitive Apus. Cladocera, or pay a water-fleas, chifly freshwater, exhibit an Damietta; interesting alternation of par the no gene Land, tic and fertilized generations. Ostracod a, sought small, laterally compre ed, and with a kingdom. bivalve shell. Copepod a swim about presvery actively and occur in vast numbers, constituting an important part of Egypt, the food-supply of fishes. Many are parasitic (e.g.), the ‘fish-lice.’ Thyro- | of and acorn shells, as wer) as the degenerate parasitic Sacculina living in the crab. | cedar, Leptostra ca are of theoretical in-| and The terest, as they probably link the higher orms. In JIsopoda the body atten system adapted for terrestrial life. Others of are parasitic, and the gribble (Limnoria) meet eats into wood. A sell us is a common tion each-fie as alitrus) and the aquatic while amm a G eaten hE ger and others ane - of commensals, with other marine animals. The following orders have stalked eyes: Euphausia live in the sea, the latter eee and having luminous organs on the eyestalks The Decapod a, with ten walking comprise + the best-known crustacean the legs, forms, lobsters, crabs, crayfish, shrimps, and prawns undergoing complete metamorphosis. The Stomatopod a are flattened and have a powerful abdomen. The Cumacea have unstalked eyes and ing are marine, Fo il C. have been discover ed from Cam brian strata.