ARABESQUE

Moorish ornamental frieze or border, consisting of botanical figures—flowers, foliage, and tendrils— often interlaced in a most fantastic manner. Fine examples are to be seen in the Alhambra and other Moorish palaces of Spain, in some of the Span. cathedrals, and in many of the great Ital. cities. tian soldier, revolutionary leader, and war minister; 6. Lower Egypt; started national Egyptian party; defeated by Wolseley at Tel-el-Kebir (1882); exiled to Ceylon; returned to Egypt (1901) 29’ N., 35° 59° 30’ E.), between Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman on EH. and Red Sea on W.; united to Africa at Isthmus of Suez; length, c. 1,500 m.; average breadth, c. 800 m.; area, c. 1,200,000 sq. m. General surface is plateau with gradual decline from W. and S. to KE. and N.; this plateau rises from elevation of 2,500 ft. in N. to over 7,000 fr. in S.W., and is bounded by mt. ranges in S. and W.; between mts. and sea is strip of low fertile land which continues along practically whole of W. coast and 400 m. along S. coast. Ptolemy subdivided country into Arabia Petroea in N.W., Arabia Feliz, 8. and W. coasts, and Arabia Desert a, remainder; but this division is obsolete. Northern part of Arabia is desert region, including Syrian Desert and Nafud or Red Desert; to N.W. is peninsula of Sinai. Central Arabia Is mainly steppe region interspersed with fertile tracts; in W. is Hejaz in KE. El Hasa, and between them is Nejd. Southern Arabia includes great Dahna Desert in interior, Asir and Yemen on W. coast, Hadramut on 8. coast, Oman on E. coast. Chief rivers Wadi Taraba in Asir. Principal mts. are Tehama range in Hejaz, Asir, and Yemen, all of which it divides lengthwise—among highest peaks are Jebel in Nejd—highest peak, Jebel Fara; N.W. There are volcanic hills in Yemen. Climate generally is very dry and hot in Rains heat is exce ive, in mt. ranges of Yemen and Hadramut temp. is more moderate, and in Nejd great cold occurs in winter. Rainy season generally lasts from June till Sept. Simoom, a hot desert wind, blows in N. from interior towards coast. Geology.—Formation is largely sandstone, with volcanic patches here and there; granite, limestone, and schists also occur, History.—For some centuries before the Christian era as for some five centuries after, the Arabs had no great history. The main power came gradually to Yemen, which modeled its state system on that of Egypt. In early 6th cent. Aby in i an invasions prepared the way for Mohammed and made Arabs a@ nation, Mohammed founded a theocratic state. Reigns of first three Caliphs were time of Arabia’s greatest prosperity (632-656); Syria, gypt, and Persia conquered and Mohammedan dominion spread over N. Africa and into Spain. Caliphs were of Ommiad dynasty from 661 to 749, when Abbasids succeeded, to be followed in turn by Fatimites in ‘early 10th cent. With growth of Mohammedan power in W., and removal of seat of government from Damascus to Bagdad, Arabia's importance gradually declined, and numerous independent pecolnalisicn arose. Yemen was held by gypt from about middle of 13th cent., and with Hejaz came into hands of Turks | in 1517. Latter belonged to Turkey or! for two short intervals, when it was held by Egypt) down to 1916; former regained tual independence in 1633, and was ruled by native princes till 1871, when last native ruler was overthrown and state again pa ed to Turkey. Eastern state of Oman had meantime become of some importance, retaining independence for several centuries despite Persian attempts at conquest; from 1508 the chief town, Muscat, was held by Portuguese, who were finally banished in 1698, since when it has been ruled by native princes; included in Brit. sphere of influence, 1905. In Central Arabia Wahabi empire was established about 1760 by AbdulWahab, a religious reformer; Wahabi dominions at one time included El Hasa, Nejd, Mecca, but they lost much of their power by war with Egypt, which ended in their defeat (1818). Following the Turk. overthrow in the Balkan Wars (1912-13), a general Arab revolt against Turkey seemed imminent. The lo of Turk. prestige encouraged ideas of independence which, as will be seen in the following be ins fructified during the World 3 Arabia and the World War.—When Turkey threw in her lot with Germany, the sympathy and interest of the Allied Powers were enlisted for the Arabs, and both Great Britain and France gave moral support to the movement for independence. The actual entry of the Arabs into the war oceurred after the surrender of General Town shend at Kut (Feb. 1916), at a time when the restoration of Turk. power seemed to be imminent. Early in 1916 Hu ein Ibn Ali, high sherif of Mecca, asked for Brit. support, and thereafter Brit. naval forces blockaded the Red Sea coast. Early in June the standard of revolt was raised; Jiddah fell after a bombardment, but Mecca offered a stubborn |resistance, and defied the forces of the rrevolted Arabs, who, under Feisal, third and most able son of the sherif, a isted by a remarkable young English men, T. E. Lawrence, were now subjected to a suitable system of training in modern warfare. Meanwhile Hu ein }a umed the title of King of the Hejaz. In Jan. 1917 a bold course of action was decided upon. Feisal set out with an army of 10,000 men from Yambo, on the Red Sea, moved unobserved acro the Turk. front, and captured the port of Weja, 300 m. to the N. of Yambo. By the middle of Feb. all the Red Sea coast up to the Gulf of Akaba was in his hands. He now began a series of raids on the Hejaz Ry., which prevented |the T urks from advancing on Mecca. Their troops in Medina became immobilized, and took no further offensive part in the war. Feisal now set himself to form a regular army, and to win over the other chiefs to the national cause, with the result that, after the lapse of eleven centuries, the whole Arab race was united against the Turks. The Brit. advance to Gaza (Jan. 1917) and the fall of Bagdad (Feb. 11, 1917) undoubtedly a isted in bringing about Arab unity. Akaba was captured in Aug. by a sudden and unexpected attack, and thereafter Feisal’s force became the right wing of Allen by’s army, operating on a front some 400 m. E&. of the Dead Sea and Jordan valley. Raids were constantly made on the railway, and the new army grew daily in efficiency. In April, when Allen by undertook a raid against Amnan, Feisal, as a preliminary, attacked Maan station; but though he was unable to occupy the place, he attained his object in holding a large Turk. force from the main attack. In Allen by’s wonderful sweep forward to Damascus (Sept. 1918), the Arabs were the first to become engaged. ‘They succeeded in breaking the communications of the 4th Turk. Army, and on Sept. 27 drove the last of their enemies from Deraa and Es Salt. On the same day they joined hands with Allen by’s 4th Cavairy Division, and their camel corps became the extreme right of the Brit. line, An Arab detachment was the first Allied force to reach Damascus (night of Sept. - 80), being followed by the main army, with Feisal at its head. It also took part in the advance on Aleppo, and was in po e ion of that city when Turkey capitulated. In March 1920 Feisal’s followers crowned him King of Syria at Damascus. The San Remo Conference (1920), however, gave the mandate for Syria to France and that for Palestine to Britain, to the great discontent of the Arabs. See Fnisan. The Kingdom of Hejaz continued _ under the rule of Husein without serious political difficulties or disorders, while the Kingdom of Irak, of which the capital of Bagdad, continued under the rule of Feisal, son of Husein. In 1921, the Arabs in the central Arabian Emirate of Nejd chose as their sultan Emir Bin Saud, who had expre ed a desire for friendly relations with the new state of Irak. During 1921 service was resumed,on the [Hedjaz railway between Haifa and Amman, the capital of Trans or dan i a. See Hsaz, INGDOM OF; RAK, KinapoM oF; 'TRANS JORDAN I A; TURKEY. ates); Aden (British.) Language and Literature.—Oldest pre Islamic poems are collection called the Mu Allaqat, including poems by Imru’l- (identity of last two doubtful). Of these Imru’!-Qais and Zuhair rank, with Nabigha Dhubyani, as three greatest Arab poets of this period, to which Samaual, a port of Jewish descent, also belongs. Earliest prose work is the Koran, consisting of speeches and teaching of Mohammed, said to be revealed to him by an angel; it is written in rhymed prose; it’s arrangement is artificial, according to length of chapters. Among poets of Ommiad times were Umar ibn Abi Rabi‘a, many of whose poems were set to music and became popular songs; Al-Akhtal, who sang the valiant deeds of the caliphs, Ferazdaq, whose specialty was satire, and who was a confirmed plagiarist; and Jarir, rival of last-named satirist, and popular favorite. Chief poets of Abbasid period man, and Buhturi, 9th cent.; Ibn Farid was great mystic poet of 13th cent., and Busiri (13th cent.) wrote poem on and grammarians are Al-Khalil and Abu med ibn Ishaq, who wrote biography of Mohammed, and Tabori, author of universal history. There were many writers on philosophy, including Ibn Tufail and Ibn Roshd in 12th cent. Resources and Productions.—Arabia has no forests, but there are long stretches of gra , which afford excellent pasture for horses, for which country has long been famed. Large numbers of camels, sheep, goats, and oxen are raised. Vegetable products are dates, coffee, cereals, fruits, spices, drugs, gums, resin, sugar, ‘cotton. Minerals include iron, lead, copper, coal, precious stones. There are few manufactures; coarse linens and woolens made by Bedouin women, also hair bags. Trade is carried on chiefly by caravans, which bring quantities of merchandise both for internal use and to distribute among pilgrims; exports coffee, dates, figs, spices, drugs. Communications are chiefly by sea or caravan, but a railway is laid from Damascus to Medina and under construction to Mecca and Jiddah. Chief seaports, Muscat, on Gulf of Oman, Jiddah and Hodeida, on Red Sea; good harbor at Aden, on 8. coast.; Inhabitants are traditionally of the Arab and Ishmaelitic stocks; former represented by agricultural population round coast, latter by Bedouins of desert and Central Arabia. In 8. are many Jews. Principal religion is Mohammedanism; every year pilgrimage, or haj, is made to holy city, Mecca, Pop. c. 3,675.000. See Map Arnica.