CANADA

British overseas Dominion, covering all the northern half of North America except Alaska and Newfoundland (41°-52° N., 57°-141° W.); it includes long fringe of islands in N. and N.E., stretching towards Pole; bounded N. by Arctic Ocean, E. by Atlantic and’ Newfoundland, S. by U.S., W. by Alaska and Pacific Ocean. The E. coast is broken up by Hudson Strait and Bay, James Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bay of Fundy; importance of first three as harbors le ened by ice in winter, of last by height of tides and strength of tidal currents; W. coast much broken, fringed with islands; N. coast commercially usele on account of latitude; 8.E. is cut up by chain of great lakes—higgest fresh water area in world; largest are Lakes Superior and Huron. Alone E. coast, by Labrador, Ca Breton I., and Nova Scotia, are low. while S.E. of St. Lawrence basin is bounded by northern extension of Appal a chi ans, with height of c. 4,000 ft. Along N.W. of St. Lawrence basin, of Great Lakes, and of their northern feeders, stretch Lauren tian Plateau and Lauren tian Range, with heights of from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. From N.N.W. to §.S.E., towards Pacific coast, run Rocky © Mountains and parallel Selkirk and Cascade Ranges, with great intervening valleys and with average height of c, 16,000. "Between Lauren tian Range, N. of Lake Superior, and foothills of © Rockies, is enormous stretch of prairie land, important for wheat ing and stock rearing; district E. and of this are in many parts densely The N. is partly plateau, partly valuable for minerals and fur-bearing animals. The great northern and eastern stretch drained by Upper Mackenzie, Copper mine, Great Fish Back rivers, flowing to Arctic; Church ill, Nelson, Albany, entering Hudson E., S., and center drained by St. rence and its tributaries, Ottawa, Red River, A iniboine, Saskatchewan; 8.W. by Fraser and upper waters of Columbia. Climate varies greatly; generally one of extremes. Temp. center ranges from 44° to 88° F.; sufficient everywhere. Extreme length There are many sources of Central district is one of the great areas of heen world; ete growing, dairying are port an’ dustries; has great quantities of extensive fisheries—lobster, salmon, ring, cod, mackerel; mineral deposits valuable, including gold, coal, nickel, silver, petroleum, asbestos, iron. Exports include lumber, cattle, wheat, flour, bacon, fish, skins, furs, sheep, butter, eggs, paper, wood pulp, leather, etc.; the ports—textiles, machinery, iron steel manufactures, clothing, salt, chemical products, etc. Canada system of protection, but there preferential tariff in favor of U.K. some of her colonies. Railway is about 38,604, and is rapidly extending; Canadian Pacific Ry., running Montreal to Vancouver, not counting innumerable branches, has a length 2,903 m., and was opened in 1885; leading lines are National Transcontinental, Canadian Northern, and Trunk Pacific from Moncton, Brunswick, to Prince Rupert on coast, begun 1904, with government and completed 1914. Besides navigable rivers and great lakes, there is fine of canals; shipping is of great importance, Telegraphic and postal communications are good. Norse explorers from Green land lished in Canada a settlement situation is unknown; but they were Overwhelmed and their settlement stroyed by Indians, who remained in disputed po e ion until the coming European explorers late in XV. John Cabot was first to reach E. of Canada, in 1497, and his son Sebastian afterwards carried out further explorations. First settlements, however, made by French; great part of coast fertile explored by corsair Verrazano in 1524 grow and ten years later Cartier formally W. annexed country in name of Fr. king wooded. exploring St. Lawrence river in 1535. plain, The colony he tried to establish, with the aid of Lieut-gen. Roberval, proved a fail north ure, as also were later settlements made Yukon; by Marquis de Ja Roche in 1598 and by or Chauvin and Pontgravé in 1599. In 1603 Samuel de Cham plain received royal Bay; charter, and in 1604 he, with Sieur de LawMonts, established settlement at St. etc., Croix, afterwards removed to Port Royal in Acadia; in 1608 he founded the Quebec, and later a trading center at is Montreal, and discovered several lakes. in His support of the Hurons against Irorainfall quois in 1609 and 1615 excited hostility c. of latter to France, so that when, later 3,730,- on, war broke out with England they supported Eng. arms. wealth. In 1613 Port Royal was plundered and wheat burnt by the = seaman Argall, but was later rebuilt. In 1621 English made - attempt at settlement in Acadia, calling timber; it Nova Scotia. In 1625 first Jesuit her mi ionaries came to Canada, and for are some time exercised t influence in copper, conduct of affairs, Richelieu established lead, Company of New France in 1627, to cheese, which management of affairs in Canada apples, was entrusted. English took Port Royal beef, in 1628, Quebec in 1629; but'in 1632, by imTreaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, these, and with the whole of Acadia, were restored coal, to France. Cham plain, who had been has taken prisoner by English, returned to is a Canada in 1633, acting as governor until and his death in 1635, Permanent settlement mileage was made at Montreal in 1642, one of founders, Laval, becoming Bishop of from Canada and was head of Church, In 1654 Acadia was again captured by of British, but it was restored to France by other Treaty of Breda, 1667, Meantime management of me of New France Grand came to an end, their charter being can New celled by Louis XIV. in 1663, when Pacific Canada became a crown colony. Adaid, ministration was now carried out by the government, a isted by in tea dent system supreme council. First governor, de Mézy, came to loggerheads with Bishop Laval, and was ordered to France, but died suddenly. For a time de Tracy some acted as viceroy, and reduced Mohawks estabto submi ion. Frontenac, who became whose governor in 1672, was unrivalled in his soon treatment of the Indians; during his addeministration Mi i ippi was explored, unand English made further settlements in of Hudson's Bay and other districts. He cent. was recalled in 1681; his succe or, coast Denonville, was guilty of treachery towards the Iroquois, who in revenge organized terrible ma acre of La poe were 1689. The recall of Denonville followed was and Frontenac returned. Meantime English made an alliance with Iroquois; suspecting which, Frontenac sent parties of Indians and French to attack Eng. settlements; several ma acres occurred, and Ing. coionists determined on war. War lasted, except for short truce in 1697, until 1713, when it ended with Treaty of Utrecht, whereby Canada, Isle Royal, and St. John’s IL. remained to France, and Britain obtained Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay territory. Formal establishment of Brit. government took place 1719. Period of peace ensued, during which French fort if led Cape Breton. After outbreak of war between France and Britain this was taken by British in 1745, but was restored to France in 1748 by Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Before long relations again became strained, and in 1755 all Fr. Canadians were expelled from Nova Scotia by Brit. governor, Lawrence. War broke out soon afterwards, and lasted till 1763. French under Montcalm had most succe in the first two years, took Oswego and Fort William Henry; but later tide turned in favor of British, who took Louis burg in 1758 and afterwards captured Prince Edward I. In 1759 Quebec fell to Brit. force commanded by Wolfe, who was killed in action; soon afterwards Montreal surrendered; and in 1763 peace was concluded by Treaty of Paris, whereby whole of Canada was ceded to Great Britain and declared Brit. province, Murray becoming governor. Canada and Nova Scotia did not join in rising of Amer. colonies against mother-country in 1776, and had no share in War of American Independence. In 1791 the Constitutional Act was pa ed, dividing old prov. of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada, each with its Own governor. Discontent broke out in Lower Canada, and friction between Fr. and Brit. inhabitants. In 1812 | occurred war with U.S., which lasted till 1814, In 1837 Fr. rising in Lower | Canada was repre ed, and in 1841 Upper and Lower Canada were reunited, while Nova Scotia and other maritime ya still had separate governments. 1867, by the Brit. North American Act, federal union was formed by Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, as Dominion of Canada, which was joined in 1871 by _ Brit. Columbia, and in 1873 by Prince Edward I.; Hudson Bay Territory had been acquired in 1869. In 1869-70, and again in 1885, occauses of which were partly racial, ly religious, the mutineers fearing the Fr. language and R.C. religion id be superseded; leader was Louis who after suppre ion of second rising was tried and executed. Dispute wiih the U.S. concerning fishery rights | was settled by treaty, 1888, and in 1892 a treaty was arranged between Canada, U.S., and Great Britain concerning sealing in Bering Sea; further disputes on this subject were settled by award in 1897, in which year also occurred the great rush to Klondike consequent on discovery there of gold. In 1896 Manitoba was agitated by religious education disputes which were settled by arrangement; and in this year Laurier became first R.C. premier. In 1898 a conference met at Quebec on question of Alaskan boundary, which was finally defined by treaty with U.S. in 1903. Pacific cable to Australia was completed 1902. New provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created out of N.W. Territories in 1905; in 1912 Ungava was a igned to Quebec, and N.W. Territories S. of 60° N. were divided between Ontario and Manitoba. The Dominion was formed by confederation between 1867 and 1873 of all the Brit. N. Amer. colonial po e ions, except Newfoundland and coast strip of Labrador between Hudson Strait and Gulf of St. Lawrence forming part of that colony. Executive consists of gov.-gen., representing Brit. crown, and_ privy council; legislature vested in Parliament of two houses, Senate and House of’ Commons, former having 96 and latter 235 members. Senators are nominated for life by government; Commons. elected for five years by popular vote, The nine provinces, Ontario, Quebec, Brit. Columbia, Nova Scotia, New katchewan, and Prince Edward I., have each a lieutenant-governor and Parlia- |ment, and administer their own local |affairs (see Feperation). The chief rejligion is Roman Catholicism, though ‘canism have large followings. Education, which is uncer provincial Lepage is free and compulsory, and there are 2 ‘universities, one or more in each proy. (see Universities). Militia service is compulsory between ages of 18 and 60, From time to time proposals have been put forward for the establishment of a Royal Canadian Navy, which will probably be organized in the near future, to guard Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Inhabitants include Brit., Fr., and. other European nationalities, Indians, and Chinese. Immigration continues with great rapidity; in 1912-13, 402,432 settlers arrived, the greatest number of whom came from U.S. and the U.K. There are some 1,600,000 French-speak— ing Canadians, and over 110,000 Indians, Sep. 7,300,000. anada and the World War.—(1) General. epee pete d war was Canada placed her whole resources disposal of the mother-country. script i on was introduced in 1917. first to last she raised over 550,000 for active service, of whom 400,000 sent overseas. Her casualties were 000, 44,000 killed or died of Besides fighting men, she sent munitions, ships, and food to Europe. By nearly 500 munition factories were operation, and 62,000,000 shells sent overseas. Lumber in vast quantities and aeroplanes, 2,500, and aeroplane parts were constructed; 450 m. of ways were torn up and dispatched France. Increased efforts were made food production valued at $187,011,000 in 1914-15, and at $710,619,400 in 18. She also raised five war loans, also made advances to Great of war $230,000,000). Voluntary zations of all kinds raised total $90,000,000. During war all but Quebec prohibited sale of intoxicants with prohibition general on May 1, Naval.—Canada's two war Niobe, cruiser, 11,000 tons, and Rainbow, light cruiser, 3,600 tons, cid useful ice in Pacific and Atlantic; fleet trawlers and drifters sent naval service; large shipbuilding gram undertaken by government submarines, 60 armed trawlers, armed drifters, 550 patrol boats, special boats for operations on Tigris, well as supply of‘similar craft for and Italy. Forty mercantile steamers from 3,000 to 10,000 tons were ized pee building; several launched istice. (2) Military.—1st Canadian Div. sent acro in early autumn of followed by 2nd Div., which arrived France Sept. 1915; third formed 1916; fourth, Aug., 1916, by which Canada had four divisions and a brigade in Europe. In 1918 total in France nearly 150,000. In the following battles Canadian troops won special distinction: Second Battle of Ypres, April 22, ist Div., though ga ed and terribly sailed, barred the way to Calais and Channel ports. St. Eloi, April, 1916; 2nd Div. brunt of operations during long for crater and trench positions. Sanctuary Wood and Hooge, June 1916: 3rd Div. recaptured Mount Observatory by brilliant counter-attack. First Battle of Somme, Sept. Dec., 1916: all four divisions took nent part in taking Courcelette, 15, and 4th Div. captured Regina N. of Courcelette, Dec. declared Vimy Ridge, captured by Canadian at the Corps, April 9, 1917, one of most fruitful Con succe es of the whole war; Hill 70, From captured Aug. 15, 1917; Pa chendaele, troops captured Nov. 6. Amiens front: made were record advance of 22,000 yards in attack 190,- of Aug. 8, 1918. wounds. Arras-Cambrai Battle, begun Aug. 26. 1918: advanced 23 m., fighting for every 1916 foot of ground. During this period car in ried five formidable trench systems, in were cluding Drocourt-Quéant switch, Hindenburg Line, and cro ed Canal du Nord, casualties in these actions, 30,000. rail In final stage captured Douai, Valento ciennes, Denain, and Mons. In Mons or in Armistice Day. Canada revived with great quickne 1917after the World War, in spite of the and immense drain upon her resources during Britain the conflict. The changing relations tc close the Empire tending toward self-governor gan i ment was greatly advanced and came of to embrace all parties including the provinces Conservatives. The last outward sign of imperial authority in Canada, with the 1919. exception of the Governor-General, dis ve els, appeared when the Imperial troops were recalled during the war. An illustration servin the change of spirit was the new attiof tude toward the conferring of titles. In ac: overseas; cordance with the wishes of Parliament, for titles are no longer conferred up or proCanadians. Likewise the appointment — 12 of the Governor-General now depends 100 on the recommendation of the Canadiar and government and not on that of the as British government. In 1921 Lord Byng France of Vimy was appointed Governor of General. Canada was represented at the author conference on the Limitation of Arm a before ments in Washington, in 1921-22, by Sir Robert Borden, former Prime Minister. was He took an important part in the, de1914; liberations. On the occasion of Lloyd in George’s appeal, in October, 1922, tc Feb., the colonial governments to support time the Empire in case of war against ‘Turcavalry key, the Canadian government asked number for further information before pledging itself to send troops. The industrial conditions improved rapidly in 1921-22, The number of unemployed diminished. 1915; Adverse agricultural conditions, how as ever, made it advisable to appoint 2 the committee to inquire into certain features capable of improvement. Immibore gration to Canada decreased 25 per cent, struggle in 1922, as compared with the same period in 1921. Immigrants from the 13, United States in 1922 numbered 18,982, Sorrel and in 1921, 21,594, i A further indication of the tendency and towards self-government in Canada was prom i the signing, on March 2, 1923, of th Sept. first direct treaty between the Unite trench States and Canada, made without mediation of Great Britain. The t was signed to secure preservation of the halibut fisheries of the northern Pacific Ocean. It was signed by Secretary Hughes and the Canadian Minister of Marine and Fisheries. IMG:map549.jpg: