Affirmation

or DECLARATION, a statement is now substituted for an oath in cases of whose conscientious scruples prevent them taking an oath, as Quakers, Moravians, or If made before the proper authorities, court of law or commi ioners, the affirmant is, case of false statement, liable to the same con as if he had taken an oath thereto. OATH.] hanistan, an Asiatic country, bounded India on the east, Persia on the west, Baluchon the south, and the River Oxus and the po e ions in Central Asia on the north. has an area of about 270,000 square miles, and population estimated at about five millions. of the most gigantic mountain ranges of world—the Hindu Kush, an offshoot of the — overspreads the greater part of The temperature thus varies from cold in the highlands to the most intense in plains, such as those of Jelalabad, and Seistan. The monsoon which India has scarcely any effect beyond the range, the eastern limit of the Afghin Mineral wealth is believed to be abunin the northern and eastern parts, iron, copper, antimony, and other metallic ores, and several of the earthy alkaline and salts being met with in greater or le Gold in small quantities is brought Candahar, the Laghman Hills, and Kunar, is famous for its rubies and lapis-lazuli. ordinary domestic animals, such as the horse, cow, buffalo (occasionally), elt goat, etc., the main wealth of most of the Afghans; several of the wild animals, such as the wolf fox, are hunted and trapped for the sake of furs. The principal towns are Cabul, Herat, Ghazni, Jelalabad, Maimana, Saripul, and Balkh. Cultivation is of two kinds, abi and lall am, the being dependent solely on rain, and the. 48 former Fruits, quince, are are with of other, Indian spring in tobacco, quantities it is state tures the dahar), coats, Persia, with Railway and is chants, as They dyes, of the themselves goods. attacks, particularly Afghanistan: P ( 42 on irrigation above or below ground (kerez). including the ‘apple, pear, almond, peach, plum, pomegranate, grape, fig, melon, etc., produced. In most parts of the country there two harvests, one, consisting of wheat, barley, some peas and beans, being sown at the end the autumn and reaped in summer; while the which includes rice, arzun, millet, jowari, corn, and the like, is sown at the end of and reaped in autumn. Cotton’ is found the hotter districts; the castor-oil, madder, and a afvetida plants are common, great of the last being exported to India, where is a favourite ingredient in cookery. Agriculture TS Pie aa Hi ha te a aT OMT NTE “ue GROUP the principal employment. Owing to the normal of unrest throughout the country, manufacare unimportant, the more noticeabie being production of silks and felt (especially at Can the manufacture of postins, or sheepskin and dyeing. There is a good trade with through Herat; and an increasing trade India, through Candahar and the Sind Pishin in the one direction, and vid the Khaibar Gomul Pa es in the other. The latter route preferred by the Powandahs, or itinerant merwho move about with their flocks, and act carriers of goods between Afghinistiin and India, import carpets, furs, woollen, silks, drugs, and dried fruits, and descend into the plains the Punjab, leaving their families in charge of camels, flocks, and herds, while the Powandahs travel far over India to dispose of their They are subject’ to endle exactions, and robbery from the border tribes, more the Wasiris; and the vitality of this ) | ancient | very remarkable. | horses, | In return | sugar, | under great | and, generally | litate communication. | and it is | impa able | travellers Afghinistiin | highly | —1l. The PE stile ye wees OF AFGHANS, | belong | centred | Helm and | numbering | of Turkish | mercial | well over | the Persian | trading | about | chiefly | eastern | and Aimaks, Persian, | and Herat; | or Uzbeks, | Afghan | Galcha | 100,000; | Galcha The Afghinistan traffic, in ae of such The imports madder (manjit), fruits, the Afghans receive and tea. Such trade difficulties, there speaking, nothing The only when a route that it is repaired, for their own convenience. forms an ethnological complex character, the politically dominant ary ee nh: Cette to the Iranic branch chiefly in the Cabul, basins, and in the about 1,000,000, origin, who form sections, are rather 1,000,000. 2. The branch, forming communities in the 1,000,000. 3. The traders, and numerous, districts; about 500,000. of Mongolo-Tatar in the northern highlands 600,000 to 700,000. forming the bulk Turkist 200,000. (Hastern Iranic) the Kohistani and stock, in Kohistén and Afghdns speak Pushto, an. discouragements, is into India also include ghi, and raw silk. cotton goods, indigo, as exists is carried on being no made roads, being done to facirivers are not bridged; becomes absolutely and then only by area of a chief elements being Afghans or Durant of the Aryan family, Arghandd , and Suleiman highlands, though the Ghilzais, the military and com more numerous, being Zajiks, also Iranians of agricultural and also more fertile districts; Hindkis—i.e. Hindus, especially in the 4. The Hazaras stock, now speaking between Bamian 5. The Aataghéns, of the population in 6. The Badakshi of stock, in Badakshén, Siakposh Kayjirs, also Kafiristén; 120,000. but in diplomatic 49 Afium. ¢ 43 correspondence, they employ the more refined Persian. They are Mohammedans of the Sunni sect, and this is a chief ground of their hereditary hatred of those Persians who belong to the Shiah sect. Although loosely united under one Amir, they do not constitute a homogeneous nationality, but are split up into a multiplicity of more or le hostile tribal groups, of which the more powerful are the Duréani, to which belongs the reigning dynasty; pop. 800,000; the Ghilzais, 600,000; the Yusafzaes, 600,000; and the Waziri, 250,000. They are physically. of a somewhat coarse, vigorous type, with regular features, swarthy complexion, and an occasional Jewish cast of expre ion, which lends some colour to their claim to the title of “ Bani- Israel,” or ‘“‘Sons of Israel.” The name Afghiin has been connected with the Acvaka of the Mahdbhdrata. Another national name is Pakhtin, whence the form Pathdén, by which they are commonly designated in India. The government is a military, aristocratic, and despotic republic. Religion is the counterpoise to his authority, which gives the clergy, or “ mullahs,” great influence. The dominions of the Amir are Ssaldanoared divided into the four provinces of Cabul, urkistan, Herat, and Candahar. The districts of Badakshén and Wakhan have recently been merged into that of Turk i std in. In Shere Ali’s time the revenue of the country was estimated at £712,968 a year, the government demand varying from athird to a tenth. At the end of 1909 the revenue was returned as £600,000, The army is said to have been founded by Shere Ali. The whole of Afghinistiin was conquered by Timur, Cabul remaining in the hands of his descendants, and Candahar being added to it by Sultan Babar in 1522. Nadar Shah, the Persian, held the Afghan provinces till his a a ination in 1747, after which they were formed into a single empire under Ahmed Shah. The latter part of the century was marked by a series of internal wars, till the news that the Emperor Napoleon and the Czar had agreed upon an expedition to India through Persia resulted in the despatch of Mr. Elphinstone to Cabul. A treaty was concluded with Shah Shujah, the ruler of Afghanistan, at Peshawur, in 1809. His rule, however, proved unpopular, and he was dethroned in favour of Mahmud Shah. In 1837 Mahomed Shah, ruler of Persia, encouraged, as it is said, by Ru ia, laid siege to Herat, the defenders being a isted by Lieutenant Pottinger. The British determined to restore Shah Shujah to the throne of Cabul, and in 1839 took po e ion of Candahar, and Shah Shujah was crowned. Ghazni soon fell, and the Anglo-Indian army entered Cabul. Frequent insurrections, however, soon arose, culminating in the serious revolt of the winter of 1841-2. In January the British division was practically annihilated, but this was avenged in General Pollock’s expedition the same year, and the British army returned in triumph to India. In 1863 Dost Mahomed became master of Herat, but he only lived thirteen days afterwards, and was succeeded by his son, Shere Ali Khan, His reign was most troublous, and internal wars with the chief princes were ince ant. In 1878, when the relations between ) Ru ia made declared when { Ayub withdrawn 1901, Khan. events and the Great in to Certain frontier an took importance, of manufactures. is about 11,960,000 population 220,000,000, square western nected till was position, southern gular Australia, like equator tance points, Agulhas between Cape and nearly owing *gulfs except with and west, the 15,000 much Europe. islands: seaboards, islets tan the groups, volcanoes Perim, Africa. and Great Britain were strained, Shere Ali overtures to Ru ia, whereon Great Britain war, which did not really cease till 1880, Sir F. (now Lord) Roberts totally defeated Khan in August, and the British forces were to Quetta. Abdur Rahman died in and was succeeded: by his son, Habibulla Among the more important of recent political may be mentioned the treaty arranged in 1898, signed in Cabul in 1905, which provided for foreign affairs of the country being controlled b Britain, whilst the internal affairs remaine the hands of the Amir, Great Britain, further, protect the country against foreign aggre ion. boundary delimitations on the Persian were settled in 1903-5, and in 1907, by Anglo-Ru ian agreement, Great Britain under to annex no portion of Afghanistan territory. Afium-Kara-Hi ar, 3 city of commercial 200 miles E. of Smyrna, in the pashalic Anatolia. It is a mart for opium and local Africa. Extent, Configuration, Islands.-—Africa a continent, smaller than Asia and America, three times larger than Europe, with area square miles, including the islands, and vaguely estimated at from 200 to or from 16 to 18 inhabitants to the mile. Geographically Africa forms a south peninsula of Asia, with which it was con from remote ages by the Isthmus of Suez the year 1869, when that narrow neck of land pierced by a navigable canal. In form, as in it is intermediate between the two other continental ma es, being of irregular tri an shape; in its outlines le monotonous than le diversified than South America, and, the latter, tapering from its base north of the to its apex in the Austral seas. ‘The dis between the extreme northern and southern Cape Blanco (lat. 37° 19°40" N.) and Cape (lat. 34° 51’ 15” 8.) is nearly the same as the extreme eastern and western points, Guardafui in the Indian Ocean (long. 51° 14’E.) Cape Verde in the Atlantic (long. 17° 32’ W.), 5,000 miles one way, over 4,500 the other. But to its gencrally uniform contours, with no or inlets penetrating far’into the interior, Cabes and Sidra on the Mediterranean, and but few bold headlands, such as Capes Bon Blanco on the north, Verde and Lopez on the Good Hope on the south, and Guardafui on east side, the total] coast line is little over miles, or 4,000 miles le than that of the smaller but far more varied continent of There is also a remarkable absence of scarcely any on the northern and southern none in the South Atlantic except the of Annobon, Ascension, St. Helena, and Trisd’Acunha; none in the North Atlantic except Madeira, Canary, Cape Verde, and’ Bi agos with Fernando Po and ‘one or two other in the Gulf of Guinea; in the Red Sea, Dahlak and other coralline reefs; in the 50 {ndian near gascar and or remnants “ Lemuria.” Physical of the tems elsewhere, above 1,200 hundred fhe at two ment, cuastlands escarpment, parts elevated sides, and lower south-east; Usagara, highlands Mozambique and Njaro north-west Ocean, the coast,. with Mascarenhas continents, are generally the to 1,300 feet surface different leaving of the and where Drakea Zwarte Masai culminating (19,780 Africa. ( Socotra, Pemba, Zanzibar, and Mafia, besides the great island of Mad a the surrounding Comoro, Seychelles groups, apparently dependencies of a now submerged continent of Features.—Africa is the most elevated for although the mountain sysle lofty and le developed than the land stands at a higher mean level sen—-3,000 to 4,000 feet in the south, in the north, average 2,200, several more than Asia, the next highest. Geno fr P. wae Bito ba ad Gulf "uf uf Guinea Guinea & o [Equator WY Cong, | Free Trade Ar ae o ¢ English Miles > Q_ 200 ayo fuw 800 | EXD uritish 130 WDrrenh BBratian EMGerman BEB spanish cs AA GED treigion so 20 10 MAP OF AFRICA, SHOWING THE DIFFRRENT is thus disposed in two vast plateaux levels, with an outer rim or escarp a relatively narrow zone of low-lying between the uplands and the sea. This somewhat low and even effaced on north-east and west sides, is more often disposed in terraces on the other are developed the lofty Nieuweveld (8,000 to 10,000 feet), flanked by the and Lobombo ridges in the south and the Namuli, Nya a (Living stone), (Aberdare), Kaffa and Aby in i an stretching along the east side from to the Red Sea (6,000 to 15,000 feet) in Kenia (18,620 feet) and Kilim a feet); the Atias system in the extreme (8,000 to 12,000 feet); the Cameroon, 44 ) | Angolan, side are connected range Marrah (10,000), lake range Zambesi Geology.—In appearance plutonic star: yl; = Ys POSSESSIONS over Thus are islets volcanic group land one old throughout limestones chytes Sahara supposed, the ring old and and Damara (6,000 to 13,500). ne extensive mountain or isolated (5,000 to 8,000) (4,000 to and Ruwenzori region; the unexplored forming the basins. its of great. and sedimentary OB: Wipe Ys mt g. 45 S a. ee Khyn, \ SS EE ioe g OF THE EUROPEAN the more recent late eruptive rocks mainly confined on the west; disturbance in the Mozambique and the east slopes or two volcanic sandstones, and the Nile are a ociated resting on a are not of recent but have of quarts, carboniferous sandstones; crystalline sandstones are Africa. chains, in 6,000) divide geology antiquity, to the and extending islets nummulitic basin; granite mainly widely coast ranges on the In the interior systems, but only such as the Central Sahara; the in Dar-For; Mfumbiro (20,000?) in the equatorial Lokinga (Mushing a) between the Congo Africa presents the more primitive rocks mostly prevailing ~Tropiy ot Capucorn POWERS, corresponding formations. and still active volcanoes Came roons and adjacent on the east side to a from the Comoro Channel! through of Aby in i a northwards in the Red Sea. Syenites, limestones in Aby in i a the with dolerites and basis; the sands marine origin, as has resulted from the limestone, and rocks, granites, diffused throughogt west there dis- Tibesti Jebel and the line of Masaito prevail old traof the been we a very gnei , 51 52 53 Sudan Upper with quartzites, metamorphic characteristic The separated from the terrace most Guinea, (Congo Fertit) and (Vaal (Sahara of Atlantic not Nile, north above other times directions, region, pend Even reaches So beyond Indian the above of watered studded of copious from Victoria Edward, through and Congo flow four and 5,000,000 affuents, the presents But African Limpopo), the or separate on Cape extent Africa. (45; granites and auriferous quartz crop out in Guinea, and are intermingled in Kordofan porphyries and syenites; basalts, crystalline limestones, shales, clay slates and other rocks, red and other sandstones are of the Mauri tan i an (Atlas) region. metamorphic rocks of the Congo basin are by the alluvial plains of the Zambesi the granites and crystalline slates underlying fo iliferous rocks of the Orange basin and lands (Karoos) of the extreme south. The widely diffused minerals are gold (Upper Nubia, Matabele Land, Transvaal); copper and Welle basins, Nam aqua land, Dar-; iron (Transvaal, Makaraka Land, Morocco, many other regions); salt (Sahara); diamonds basin). Hydrography.—Both extra-tropical regions are rly watered, each with an almost rainle zone and Kalahari Deserts), and almost destitute navigable rivers. From the Senegal on the to the Juba on the Indian Ocean there is a single perennial navigable stream except the and the Nile itself is joined by no affluent of the Atbara confluence many hundred miles the delta. The Igharghar, Me a war a, and copious watercourses, which in quaternary intersected the now arid Sahara in various have disappeared, and the oases of this as well as large tracts in Mauri tan i a, def or their supplies on underground reservoirs. the Baraka, chief affluent of the Red Sea, the coast only during the rainy seasons. also in the south, the only important streams the Zambesi are the Limpopo flowing to the and the Orange to the Atlantic Ocean, and former alone is navigable for a short distance its mouth. But the inter-tropical zone, comprising four-fifths the continent, is one of the most abundantly regions of the globe. Here is the island- Lake Chad, occupying an extensive area inland drainage in Central Sudan and fed by the rivers Shari from the south and Komadugu the west. Here are the vast equatorial lakes Nyanza, Albert Nyanza, and Albert which with Lake Tsana in Aby in i a drain the Nile to the Mediterranean; Bangweolo Tanganyika, which discharge through the to the Atlantic; Nya a, which sends its over through the Shiré to the Indian Ocean. The great arteries of the Congo, Nile, Niger-Benue, Zambesi have a collective drainage are a of nearly square miles; and the Congo with its great Mobangi-Welle, Aruwimi, and others on right bank, Kwango-Ka ai-Sankuru on the left, many you sand miles of navigable waters. all the main streams, as well as many other rivers (Senegal, Ogoway, Cunene, Orange, are still entangled in the intricacies of plateaux and obstructed by falls on their lower middle courses. Smaller coast streams with catchment basins are numerous, especially the seaboards of Sene gambia, Upper Guinea, Colony, and Zanzibar. But relatively to the of their basins few of the watercourses are é ) copious, next. Africa le , about are rounding of le the dryne more valleys, ‘‘shotts,” fevers sultry the northern and Yet shade, than tremities these Mediterranean gether lands thoroughly colonisation. acclimatised north than settlement. prevail tania origin accompanied known the appear the region of monsoons east on - ce ive exceeding falling and and tation itself. parting of “galleries” impenetrable the dominant forest between the Africa. and the Congo, which in this respect ranks to the Amazons, has a volume probably equal the collective discharge of all other African vers, Climate—Despite its greater mean altitude, is the hottest of the continents. Never the the hottest parts are not those lying on or the equator, but those extensive tracts that farthest removed from the influence of the surseas, and are at the same time destitute lofty mountain ranges, Such are the arid waterara of the Sahara and its eastern extensions, Libyan and Nubian deserts. But owing to the of the atmosphere, these regions are far healthy than the cooler but moister fluvial the low-lying coastlands, the Mauri tan i an and other swampy tracts where malarious are endemic. In the stony and sandy wastes days are followed by cool nights, caused by rapid radiation of the solar heat, and in the parts of the Sahara snow falls occasionally stagnant waters are covered with a film of ice. the gla rises in this region to 120° Fahr. in the. while the normal temperature is not more: 70° Fahr. at the northern and southern exof the continent. Speaking generally, two extra-tropical regions, comprising the. seaboard and the Cape lands, to with parts of the Masai and Aby in i an upand of the equatorial lake districts, are salubrious and adapted for oa The white race has already been without difficulty in the extreme and south, but elsewhere probably not more. one-tenth of the land is suitable for permanent. In the northern zone dry trade winds. throughout the year, interrupted in Mauriby winter rains, and here also have their the pestilential simooms or hot winds, by fierce sand storms, which are as the harmattan in the west and khamasin in. east, and which, cro ing the Mediterranean, reunder the name of the sirocco in Italy and as fohn in the Alpine valleys. In the inter-tropical the moisture-bearing clouds follow the course the sun, which in combination with the oceanic gives rise to a double rainy season on the and west seaboards, and to permanent rains. and about the equator. Flora.—This continuous rainfall, though not ex- (normally 60 to 60 inches, seldom anywhere 100, and at Wadelai on the White Nile to 42), suffices to de ne in the Gaboon many parts of the Congo basin, as in Manyuema. the Aruwimi valley, an exuberant forest vegecomparable to that of the Amazon's basin On the plains about the Congo-Nile water the rivers disappear beneath a dense tangle overhanging foliage, likened by travellers to long’ following their winding course, But. forest growths, matted together by coils of huge lianas, are by no means the feature of the African flora. In fact, the zone proper is chiefly confined to the region the great lakes and the west coast, and to slopes of the Atlas, Aby in i an, and Masai 54 highlands. Woodlands cover 15 per cent. of the whole surface, where marked by the sharpest the boundle gra y ste cultivated corn-yielding plains sandy wastes of the northern regions. ‘The African flora is, in distinct species than that of Thus the characteristic date, palms are widely diffused northern and central zones; itself is a grasps by ten times in Asia and America as in Africa. plants are the gigantic baobab ensete and kigalia of Sudan thorny and gummiferous acacias. yrus, ambatch, and other e basin, the remarkable welwitschia southern districts. Mauri tan i a, chestnuts, conifers, cork-tree, presents a transition between and African floras, while the distinct botanical zone, distinguished prising variety of gra es, heaths, ng shrubs. Of cultivated plants the most valuable are indigo, manioc, coffee (two roaize, alfa gra , ground nuts, and date palm. Fauna —Owing to the absence barriers the African fauna is degree of uniformity, many forms, such as the lion, leopard, elephant, giraffe, buffalo, rhinoceros, geo me members of the antelope most from one extremity of other. Amongst the most typical zebra and now extinct quagga anthropoid apes (gorilla and tropical forests; the widely-diffused (dog-faced baboon); the colobus the Dinka and Senegal cattle, SKULL OF A NEGRO. and other antelopes, fennec (Egyptian bird, balesniceps rex, secretary, guinea fowl; huge pythons snakes; the locusts, termites, tive tsetse and donderobo flies, to most domestio animals. Of are the horse, the camel (introduced ( probably le than which is else contrasts between of the plateanx, the of Sudan, and the and southern desert on the whole, poorer the other continents. dam, deleb, and oil in their respective but the palm family as many species Highly typical (A dans on i a), the and Sene gambia, the of the steppes, the graminacem of the of the arid with its olives, and evergreen oaks, the South European Cape lands form a by a surferns, and flower and other economic wheat, durra, cotton, varieties indigenous), butter-tree, bananas, of great mountain marked by a certain of the characteristic hyzna, jackal, ostrich, and family, ranging alt he continent to the animals are the of the south; the chimpanzee) of the cynocephalus and green monkey, koodoo, eland, gnu fox); weaver ibis, flamingo, and and venomous and still more destracwhose bite is fatal these, the commonest by the Arabe), 46 ) Africa. the ox, goat, sheep, and Mohammedan countries the dog Popuilation.— The aboriginal inhabitants of; Africa belong to two distinct stocks, the Hamitic and the Negro, and the great bulk of the population probably represent diverse inter minglings of these two primitive elements. The proper home of the Hamites, who are themselves a branch of the Caucasicfamily, "¢ is the northern }3 section of the “™ continent from the Mediterranean to the Sudan. They form Berber (Kabyle, Shluh, Tuareg, (‘‘ Barbary” States) and the western (Teda, Dasa, and others) in the eastern tian (Copts, Fellahin) in the Lower opian (Beja, Afar, Agau, Galla, east of the Middle and Upper Nile equator (Nubian Steppes, Aby in i a, and Galla lands). Of the early European and Greeks in Cyrenaica and Lower mans, and Vandals in Mauri tan i a) appeared, leaving but doubtful presence, chiefly amongst the Of later European immigrants wre the Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, slong the Mediterranean seaboard the frontiers of Morocco; the (Boers) in the extreme south. Portuguese are half-castes, Huguenots of the Cape had already by the Dutch before the British Geographical Exploration.—Since middie of the 19th century covery has progre ed at a rapid been done before that time ledge of the continent except discoverer of the source of the Mungo Park and the brothers mbia and the Niger basin (1795-7; lapper ton in Central Sudan Gobat, Krapf, and Rebmann Aby in i a (1830-52); Du Chaillu, aad Gaboon basins (1850). little intermi ion the memorable Living stone in South Oentral Bangweolo, Ngami, etc. (1849-78); son, and Overweg in Central (1850-55); Burton and Speke, try, and and pig, four main etc.) in Mauri tan i a Sahara; Sahara Nile valley; Somali) from Egypt Somal, Asiatic immigrants Egypt, Phosnicians, all traces Berbers of the most and from English and Most of the and all the been occupation. about geographical rate. Little to enlarge by James Blue Nile Lander 1806; and Sahara in East Africa in the Then followed explorations Africa, lakes Barth, and West lakes Tanganyika in non Ss: groups: Tibby; Lgyp- Hthigenerally to the Kaftag have dis of their Algeria! numerobs French Egypt to Dutch so-called French absorbed ‘the dishad our know- Bruce, (1770); in Sene- 1830), (1822); and Ogoway wit of Nya a, Richard. Sudan 55 and lake Albert Nile Sudan (1873-5);. Victoria, Serpa Wi mann Junker, Makua Congo Thomson, Baringo Rudolf, mountains, (1887-89) Niger Ahaggar Gibbs rond (1900); Rudolf and @ea and Erlanger, Loefier, Dodson, Gautier, hagen, (1904-6). Darley, *." lier, ' * « “Past The 5,000 be reached from coast proposed, progre ing tract dependent become Powers. adjustments the was the delimitations Aby in i a Nigeria (1907). the a Sahara. October, proved Free the tion prescribed Africa. ( 47 Victoria Nyanza (1857-8); Speke and Grant, Victoria and White Nile (1860-62); Baker, Nyanza (1863-5); Schweinfurth, White and Welle (1868-71); Nachtigal, Central (1869-74);.Cameron, South Central Africa Stanley, circumnavi gation of Lake» LakeAlexandra, Lualaba-Congo(1875-77); Pinto, Benguela to Natal (1877-79); Pogge, and: Wolf, Congo.” basin (1881-86); Libyan, Desert, Makar aka Land, Wellebasin, (1875-86); Grenfell and Van Gele, basin, Ubangi river (1885-6; 1888); Joseph Masai Land (1884); Fischer, Lake (1885-6); Count Teleki, Lake Samburu or (1887);. Stanley, Aruwimi basin, Ruwenzori Lake Albert Edward, Semliki river, etc.; Decoeur and Alby, Niger (1894); Baud, (1895); Botego, Lake Rudolf (1895); Foureau, (1897); Bonnin, Upper Senegal (1897); and Law, Nyas sal and (1897); Schdller, Kaviand Uganda (1898); Peake, White Nile Austin, Bright and Garner, Sobat and Lake (1901); Kandt, Nile Basin (1901); Huot Bernard, French Congo (1901). Much of the of these and other districts has been surveyed explored subsequently also, notably by Neuman, de Bozas, Fournet, Wicken burg, Kieffer, Kerremans, W. H. Wylde, Matthews, Wilson, King (1901-3); Alexander, Gosling, Gentil, Rocquevaire, Hobley, Meinertz- Uhlig, Perceval, Lyons, Duke of the Abruzzi; Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Aya e, Aylmer, Kumm, Cortier, Desplagnes, Chevaon, etc. (1907-9). Communication from the coast with the interior is being facilitated by the construction of railways. Cape to Cairo Railway has now approaching miles constructed; from the south it will soon some sixty miles into Congo territory, havin the border by the beginning of 1910; aad the north itjis beyond Khartoum. On the west there are 16 systems open, constructing or and generally railway construction is rapidly. There are 14,490 miles of open or cons tracting in Africa. Political Divisions.—There are now but few innative states, Africa having almost politically a dependency of Huropean The territorial developments and political haveS been many:of recent years, but partition of Africa among the European Powers virtually complete by 1900. Since then, more important arrangements include the of the following boundaries:— (1902 and 1907), Barotseland (1905), (1906), Kamerun (1906 and 1908), Liberia In 1905 an area of 193,000 square miles of Sahara: was incorporated by the French into and henceforth was known as the Algerian In 1907 the Belgian Legislature, and in 1908, the late king of the Belgians, apof the annexation to Belgium of the Congo State,and the Powers(except Great Britain and United States of America) a enting, the annex a took place February, 1909, certain areas being by the Powers as available for develop. ) Africa.. atc SOS es ment respectively in July, 1910, 1912. In Morocco the Algeciras 1906, put affairs ona workable basis after the,. anterior upheaval. In the °: south, the Union | -::: of Cape Colony “..-: Natal, Zululand,;°} Transvaaland! “:¥ Orange River,~ Colony was consummated in [i May, 1910. The |... * territory actually |: occupied or ade‘. ministered, claimed as under 7m their protection, 3: or within their respective spheres of influ-, ence, by Euroim ‘, ee pean Powers is: HOTTENTOT. Eurvpean Po e ions or Spheres of Influence. Great Britain: South African Union (Cape Colony, Natal, ‘Transvaal, Orange River Colony, Zululand); Rhodesia (Mat abele land, Mash on a land, Barotseland); Swaziland, the Protectorates of Nyas sal and, Soma lil and, Basutoland, and Bechuanaland; West African Colonies (Northem and Southern Nigeria—Colony and Protectorate—Goli Coast and A shanti, Sierra Leone, and Gambia); British East Africa (Hast Africa, Uganda, and Zanzibar Protectorates); Mauritius, Ascension, St. Helena, Seychelles, and other islands- - = - + - «© * « = Franck: Algeria; Sahara; Tunis; Sénégal; Upper Senegal and Niger; Guinea; Ivory Coast; Dahomey, Mauri tan i a; Congo; Réunion; Madayascar; Mayotte and the Somali Const - - + - = Greamany: To go land (including Little Popo and Porto Seguro in Upper Guinea); Kamerun Protectorate; German South Western Africa (in- « cluding Namaraland and Damar a land); German East Africa - + + PorruaaL: Angola; Guinea; Portue guese East Africa (including Movambique and Nya a); Madeira, Cape Verde, St. Thomas, and Princes Islands -« ©» w=» «@ Spams: Saharan Po e ions (Rio de Gre: bray ode iat? Cute io Muni, uan); Ceuta; Islands: Fernando Po, Annobon, Corisco, and smaller isleta- - + - IraLy: Eritrean (Red Sea Coast); East Soma lil and Protectorate Torxey: Tripoli and Fezzan; Egypt. and the Egyptian Sudan - - = = Ba.oium: Belgian Congo. Total - - = - July, 1911,. (q.v.) conference, up. ae Area in aq. miles (ost.). 2,588,900 4,421,984 981,460 798,980 80,500 175,500,|. |: 1,756,000 909,654,| | 11,658,018 July, Populati on (est,). | 49,500,000 | 24,576,550 | 14,120,000 8,248,527 |. 305,000 960,000 = | 14,600,850 20,000,000 {182,800,736 56 white parents. Afrikander Cape politics was mainly in their struggle Afrit, Afreet, Mohammedan Agades, dom in Central lt was formerly the Berbers dwindled into amemmnon, his father, the usurpation refuge with T'yndareus, laa Clytemnestra, ier sister off by Paris, expedition chief killed punishment, winds until, ficed his offended godde . really slain, carried the The feud with a slight reached its pelled to give way of compensation ullotted to that forms Achilles sulked yallantly, Agamemnon the “king haughty, but the capture taking Cas sandra, his spoils, wife and her hung over the ject of the great the Chosphori, sently, under slew his mother, father, but Furies. ‘The times pointed while excavations Schliemann the discovery _Agami. Agamide, division Cra i lin gues, Hemisphere body is broad or le with lupbit, and ¢ 48 Afrikander. der, 2 person born in South Africa of ‘The organisation known as the Bond played a considerable part in after the James on Raid (q.v.), and in sympathy with the Dutch Republics against England (1899-1902). » powerful evil genius in the mythology. [JINN.] the capital of the Air or Asben king- Africa, lat. 17° 2’ N., long. 8° 5’ E. a great depdt for the trade between and the Songhay Empire, but has now insignificance. the epic hero who succeeded Atrens, as king of Argolis. During of Thyestes and Agisthus he took his brother, Menelaus, at the court of king of Sparta, and there married the Menelaus taking to wife Helen. When the latter was carried Agamemnon took the command of the against Troy. On reaching Aulis, the a deer sacred to Artemis, and, as a the ficet was detained by contrary at the bidding of Calchas, he sacridaughter I phi gene i a to appease the However, the victim was not for Artemis substituted a stag, and girl off to be her prieste at ‘lauri. between the king and Achilles began quarre) at Lemnus or Tenedos, and height when the former, being com up the captive maiden Chryseis, by seized Briseis, who had been Achilles. Then followed the quarrel the subject of the Jliad. Whilst in his tent, Agamemnon fought though in vain, and was wounded. is always referred to in the Jliad as of men,” and is presented as a proud, brave and courageous chieftain After of Troy, the king returned to Mycene, the rie of Priam, as part of On his arrival he was murdered by his paramour, Adgisthus. The fate which house of Agamemnon formed the sub trilogy of Aschylus,the Agamemnon, and the Humenides. Orestes pre the influence of the curse of Atreus, Clytemnestra, thus avenging his bringing on himself the pursuit of the tomb of Agamemnon was in later out at Mycensw (Pausanias, ii. 16, 5), made under the direction of Dr. at Mycensz are thought to have led to of the tomb itself. [RrumPeTeER.] an extensive family of lizards of the representing in the Eastern the Iguanas of the New World. The and flat, and the skin covered more spiny scales. They are terrestrial in are found principally in deserts and ) sandy varied “ dragons” Agamogenesis, methods, genesis kind with mainly feed were stitutions Agapemone, to an in Somersets hire, was after of the again Pigott, Agar-Agar, gum parts room), Agaric us, fungi surface mushroom all the same bearing gills neath genus to split and The interior fal) includes Agaric. places. Many coloration, and or flying lizards. FLYING LIZARD reproduction such as by budding, (q.v.). ape, or Lovr-FEAsT, of feast held by early the Communion. used as opportunities their poorer brethren, charged with impurity, were banished the abode institution founded by the at one time very the death of Mr.