AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

former empire, Central Europe (42° 51’ N., 9°-27° i.); territories included Cisleithan dominions—viz. Empire of Austria; Transe i than dominions—viz. Kingdom of Hungary; and Provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was bounded N. by Germany and Ru ia, E. by Ru ia and Rumania, S. by Rumania, Serbia, Monte negro, W. by Germany, Switzerland, Italy. Area c. 115,822 sq. m.; was second largest empire in Europe. History—Country was apparently occupied in prehistoric times by Celtic tribes, of whom Taurisci have been identified with later Norici, who came into ronflict with Rome in Ist cent. B.C. Other inhabitants were Germanic tribes, who had migrated hither from farther N.; among these, Cimbri and Teutons were defeated by Marius in 101 B.C. Subsequent Roman campaigns were those of Julius Cesar against Marcomanni, of Oct avian us in Pannonia and Dalmatia, and of Drusus and Tiberius in Tyrol and Eastern Alps. During decay of Roman empfre, country was succe ively occupied by various barbarian tribes. Goths and Franks appeared in 3rd _cent., Huns in 4th; Avars established themselves here in Bth cent., holding their own for about 250 years, till close of 8th cent., when they were subdued by Franks, under Charlemagne, who founded margravate of Austria and sent Frankish colonists there. A century later Hungary was invaded by Magyars, who put an end to influence of Franks; and were in turn defeated by Ger. king, Otto I., who reestablished margravate, which late in 10th cent. was granted by Otto II. to Leopold, Count of Babenberg. Babenberg family governed Austria till 1246, when became extinct with death of Duke Frederick, slain in battle with Magyars. Emperors meanwhile belonged to Saxon, | coni an, and Hohenstaufen families. m Duke Frederick’s death, disputes se as to succe ion to his dominions ustria and Styria, which were finall uestered by Emperor Frederick II. and transferred to Otto of Werdenberg, subsequently taken by Otto of Bavaria; and then by Ottokar of Bohemia, who also acquired Carinthia and Carniola paoel but later lost all his dominions to Rudolph of Habsburg, who was elected Ger. king in 1276. Rudolph had them made hereditary in Habsburg family, and they were conferred on his sons Albrecht and Rudolph at Diet of Augsburg, 1282. Austria and Styria were then governed by Albert and his descendants; Carinthia, which was granted Me in hard of Tyrol in 1286, reverted to Habsburgs in 1335; while Tyrol, Istria,and other territories were also added to Habsburg dominions at various dates. After death of Rudolph IV., in 1365, his brother, Albert III., took over Austria and Carniola. Leopold III., another brother, took Styria and other territories, but in war against Swi was slain at Sempach (1386), whereupon Albert III. temporarily administered his dominions, presently transferring them to his nephews, Leopold’s sons; family continuing to hold Styria, while elder branch had Austria. Albert V. of Austria added Bohemia and Hungary to his dominions by marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Emperor Sigismund, king of these countries (1437); became German king (1438); imperial crown henceforward held by Habsburgs till 1740. At death of Albert’s (posthumous) son Ladislaus, in 1457, Austria pa ed to surviving Habsburg princes, and ultimately to Emperor Frederick {II., but Bohemia and Hungary elected as their kings George Podebrand and Matthias Corvinus respectively; latter invaded Austria (1477), and took Vienna, which Maximilian, son of Frederick IIL. afterwards recovered. Austrian_territories were restored to Frederick III., by Treaty of Pre burg (1491), when also succe ion to Bohemia and Hungary was entailed on Habsburgs, on extinction of male descendants of Ladislaus, son of Podebrand, who had been elected King of Hungary on death of Matthias Corvinus. Maximilian succeeded his father in 1493; he had already acquired Netherlands by marriage with Mary of Bergundy, and been elected Roman king in Frederick’s lifetime; reign marked by reforms empire and advance of Habsburgs. Reformation began in this reign and continued in that of Maximilian’s grandson, Charles V., who succeeded him in 1519 as archduke of Austria, and as emperor. He aimed at establishing Roman Catholicism; and was the most werful ruler in Europe, holding also pain and Netherlands. The Austrian territories he handed to his brother, Ferdinand J., while Spain and Netherlands pa ed to his son, Philip II. of Spain. Ferdinand I. was married to Anne, daughter of Ladislaus of Bohemia and Hungary, in whose right he had succeeded to Bohemian throne in 1526; but his claim to Hungary was disputed, and he obtained only royal title and part of W. Hungary, N.E. being held by John Zapolya, S.E. by Turks. He adopted olicy of toleration towards ReformaEste; which was also pursued by his son, Maximilian I1., who succeeded him in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary in 1564. Austria-Hungary in 16th Century.— In 1576 Maximilian II, was succeeded by his son, Rudolph II. who tried to put down Protestant ism; which led to open revolts in various parts of his dominions. In his reign Turks under Sultans Amurath and Mohammed invaded Hungary, supporting rebels there and practically establishing independence. Rudolph, who concerned himself Ic with:political affairs than with study of alchemy and astrology, was in 1608 compelled to-cede Austria-Hungary and Moravia to his brother Matthias, to whom crown of Bohemia was also transferred in 1611. Matthias made conce ions to his Prot. subjects and re-established authority in Austria (1609). At Rudolph’s death in 1612, Matthias ebtained imperial crown. Being childle , he succeeded in entailing his dominfons on his cousin, Ferdinand of Styria, who became emperor (Ferdinand IT.) at Matthias’s death (1619). Protestants in Bohemia and Hungary, however, reick, Elector Palatine, as king, wheroupon Thirty Years’ War broke out; after battle of White Mountain (1620) Elector fied, and Ferdinand was reinstated in Bohemia. War later a umed European character, cause of Protestants being aided by Denmark. Ferdinand, for whom Wal lens tein raised large army, was predominant in his dominions by 1629; extripated Protestant ism, i ued Edict of Restitution, restoring Catholics %o Church offices. He was now opposed by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who was subsequently joined by John George of Saxony; combined army defeated imperial troops at Britenfeld (1631), and at Lutzen (1632). In 1634 emperor’s son Ferdinand defeated Swedes at Nord-~ lingen; he succeeded his father as Ferdinand I{f. in 1637. War continued for many years, becoming struggle of France and Sweden against Austria and Spain; ended by Peace of Westphalia (1648), whereby Calvanism was recognized and advantages secured to Protestants. Ferdinand TI. was succeeded in 1657 by bis son, Leopold I., who ecuted Hungaria Protestants; which led to war against Turks, from whom he gained Transylvania, most of Hungary, part of Slavonia, and Croatia by Treaty of Carlowitz (1699). The 18th Centupy.—Leopold died in 1705, before close of War of Spanish Succe ion; his son and succe or, Joseph I., made treaty of neutrality for Italy with Louis XIV.; his principal work was pacification of Hungary; d. 1711, succeeded by brother Charles VI., whose chance of succe ion in Spain ended with Peace of Utrecht (1713). He joined Quadruple Alliance; exchanged Sardinia for Sicily; became involved in war with Turks on behalf of Venice, which resulted in addition of part of Bosnia and Serbia to Austrian dominions; i ued Pragmatic Sanction (1720), with object of securing succe ion of his daughter, Maria The res a; warred against France (1733-8) on question of Polish succe ion; towards end of reign again involved in war with Turkey, to whom he lost Serbia; d. 1740. On death of Charles (1740), Spain, Saxony, and Sardinia sought to dismember the empire, while Charles, Elector of Bavaria, claimed (inter alios) to be heir to whole, and the War of Austrian Succe ion began. Maria The res a, though gifted and patriotic, was young and inexperienced., which had guaranteed Pragmatic Sanction, led attack by occupying Silicia; Austrian general, Neipperg, was defeated at Mollwitz (1741). France, also guarantor of Prag-. matic Sanction, now made treaty with Pru ia for partition of empire and appointment of Elector of Bavaria as emperor with diminished realm:’ Linz was captured, and LHlector became Charles VII.; Maria, however, made. touching appeal to loyalty of her Hun-- gari an subjects, and bought off Frederick. the Great by secret ce ion of Silesia | (Oct. 1741); he repudiated the treaty, but ceased to prosecute war with vigor. On death of Charles VII. (1745), Maria The res a’s husband was elected emperor as Francis I.; war ended with Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, whereby Maria The res a was recognized as Queen of Austria, but had to confirm Frederick of Pru ia’s acquisition of Silesia, and cede hor Ital. - duchies to Philip of Spain, Savoy and - Nice to Sardinia. Her subsequent at-— tempt to recover Silesia resulted in Seven Years’ War (1756-63), which, | ending with Peace of Hubertsberg, left positicn unchanged. She thenceforth © devoted herself to internal affairs, reforming government, education, Church, » and improving commercial and industrial conditions.; Be Francis I. d. in 1765, and their son © became emperor as Joseph II., and join ruler of Austria with his mother. Ma ye The res a acquired Galacia and Lodomerila by partition of Poland, 1772; she d. in 1780. Joseph tried to unify his dominions by doing away with distinctions of language, etc.; he did much to ameliorate condition of lower cla es; declared Roman Catholicism to be state religion, but tolerated other religions; his reforms induced revolts in Tyrol and Netherlands; he was unsucce ful In war against Turks; d. 1790. His brother and succe or, Leopold II., put down revolt in Wether lands, and made peace with Turks and Pru ia, who had allied themselves against Austria. On outbreak of Fr. Revolution he formed alliance with Frederick William of Pru ia (1792), but died ‘soon afterwards. son, Francis II., succeeded him; he warred against France, and was party to second division of Poland (1793); defeated by Napoleon Bonaparte (1796); acquired Venice, but lost Austrian Netherlands by Treaty of Campo Formio (1797); subsequently lost much to France; proclaimed hereditary emperor of Austria as Francis I. (1804); two years later resigned crown and government of Holy Roman Empire. The 19th Century—By Treaty of Pre burg (1805-6) he lost Venice to Italy, Vorarlberg, Tyrol, etc., to Bavaria; by Peace of Schénbrunn lost further territories (Galicia, Salzburg, art of Bohemia, Croatia, etc.) to rance, Ru ia, Saxony, and Rhine Confederation (1809). etternich now became chief minister; formally declared war against France (1813), whereupon alliance formed between Austria, Pru ia, Ru ia and U.K., with ultimate result of Napoleon’s defeat and abdication in 1814. By Congre of Vienna, Austria then regained her po e ions in N. Italy, acquired Lombardy, and precedence in new federal diet of Germany. Francis I. d. 1835; reign of son, Ferdinand I. (1835-48), marked. by risings; national movement commen: in Hun- (inspired by Szechenyi, Ko uth, Doak), and in Croatia and Bohemia; revolution in Cracovia led to its annexation (1846); Fr. revolution (1848) caused fall of Metternich from power, and forced ori to grant power to Diet to establish constitutional government, freedom of speech, pre , etc. Czechs were fully enfranchished. Meanwhile, Lombard insurrection commenced at Milan, and every Austrian state armed itself to w. independence; emperor fled and abdicated (Dec. 1848) in favor of nephew, Francis Joseph; revolutions quolled (1849); emperor hastened to forestall action of Diet by himself promulgating constitution, suppre ed in 1852; retrogre ive and redo i policy; war of Italian independence broke out (1859); Lombardy lost, and Austrian rulers of Modena, Parma, and Tuscany expelled (1859); constitution again granted (1860-1), but bitterly eee 2) by non-German provinces. Deve defeat by Pru ia at Kéniggratz led to Treaty of Prague (1866), by which Austria lost Venice, and her status in Germany; continued revolts in Hungary led emperor to grant autonomy (1867), by celebrated compromise; dualist system of Austro-Hungarian monarchy led to great discontent, particularly of Slavs, and Austria had to consider advisability, or even nece ity, of turning her empire into federation. Reichsrath was made independent of provincial diets by Liberal centralist ministry (1873), which strengthened Ger. minority and introduced religious and legal reforms, but was involved in financial scandals of 1873. Austria strengthened her position by alliance with Germany (1879); invited by Berlin Congre , she occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina (1879), and supported by Germany and disregarding the expostulation of the powers, annexed them itd The ministry of Taaffe (1879-83) avored federalism and, at same time, deputies to Reichsrath; their language was\made official language in Bohemia, and Czech Univ. founded at Prague, despite opposition of Germans, Alliance with Italy (1882) freed Austria from fear of aggre ive party of Italia Irredenta, which sought the union of Ital.-speaking districts with Italy; foreign ambitions of Austria since Sadowa directed to East, but energies absorbed in keeping together hetrogeneous empire. Hlements of opposition in interior combined to win electoral reform \(1896) which merely enraged Socialists and Nationalists by {ts insufficiency. Hungary meanwhile had been faced with similar problems; she granted to Croatia its own language as official tongue and fair representation in Hungarlan Parliament (1868), and strove to keep balance even between ruling Magyar and subject peoples of Hungary till retirement of Dedk (d. 1876). His succe or Tisza sought to make Hungary balance Austria, and to establish Magyar supremacy in Hunrary, thus winning hatred of Croats and s own fall (1890). After his fall reforms went forward; religious toleration secured. By this time Tisza had made Hungary chief member of dualist systal a bg suffrage was established 1907. After the Balkan peoples had defeated Turkish tyranny in the war of 1912, it was Austria, with her ally Germany, which induced Bulgaria treacherously to attack Serbia, and, when the latter had won the war, robbed her of acce to the Adriatic by insisting upon the creation of an independent Albania, under an Austrian prince (1913). (For international situation on Continent in 1914, see under Europs.) The desperation of Turkey and the resentment of Bulgaria were used by the Ger. powers in furtherance of their ‘Middle Europe’ policy, which envisaged a German hegemony of the Balkans. The Serbs were the only irreconcilables, and the crime of Serajevo (June 28, 1914), which ultimately led to the Great War, became the pretext for the destruction of Serbia. The subsequent course of events in the Balkans will be found underWor.LD WAR, In that struggle Austrian armies suffered their accustomed fate of reverse and defeat, and it was only by the ‘stiffening’ given to them by Ger. a istance that they were able to endure. As an ally Germany found Austria more of a drag than a help; in Lud end or if’s vivid phrase, Germany was tied to a corpse. After the death of the aged emperor Francis Joseph (Nov. 21, 1916), disintegration of the ‘ramshackle empire’ rapidly set in, but although economically and politically the situation was desperate, Austria was securely tied to the Ger. chariot, dare not conclude a separate peace, and much as her statesmen, especially Count Czernin, tried, could not secure peace except on terms of complete surrender. When collapse came, the various nationalities of the dual monarchy became separate states. The Czecho-Slavaks had already been formally recognized by the Allies (Aug. 1918); the Ruthenes and the Slavs claimed independence also; and Hungary sundered its connection. A German-Austrian republic was proclaimed on Noy. 12,1918, with a national constitutional a embly of a single chamber elected by universal suffrage, which authorized the Peace Treaty (Sept.10,1919). See Map Czxecxuo-SiovaxkiA, AusTRiA, HUNGARY.