SCOTLAND

the N. part of Great 40’ W.); embraces Outer and Inner He brides and other islands off the W. coast, also Orkney and Shetland Islands in Ny bounded by Hngland and Solway Firth on S., Atlantic Ocean on N. and W., North Sea on E.; greatest breadth, 146 m.; greatest length, 274 m. ingly irregular—especially the W. coast, which has numerous estuaries and sealochs, of which the chief are: Lochs Broom, Torrid on, Linnhe, Fyne, Long, and Firth of Clyde; on the S. is Solway Firth, on the N. is Pentland Firth; E. lie Dornoch, Cromarty, Beauly, and Moray Firths, also Firths of Tay and Forth. The principal capes are Mull of Galloway (most southerly point), Mull of Kintyre, Ardnamurchan Point (most _westerly headland); Cape Wrath and Duncansby Head, with Dunnet Head (farthest N.) between them; Tarbet Ne , Kinnaird Head, Buchan Ne (most easterly point), Fife Ne , and St. Abb’s Head. There are many coastal ¢slands, especially on W. Off that coast are the He brides or Western Isles, divided into Outer and Inner He brides—the largest being Long I. (comprising Lewis with Harris, Benbecula, and N. and 8. Uist), Skye Mull, Jura, and Islay: farther S., in Firth of Clyde, are Arran and Bute, together forming co. of Bute. ‘Onmne coast the islands are small and few —Ba Rock, Inch keith, and Isle of May in Firth of Forth. The islands on the N. are included in two groups—the Orkney Islands (with Pomona, the largest, and 67 small islands), separated from the mainland by Pentlan Firth; and some 55 m. farther N. the Shetland Islands, 28 islands (of which Mainland is the principal) and c. 70 islets: these groups constitute separate counties. Geographically, as well as geologically, Scotland is divided into three regions by two lines of faulting. One series of faults stretches in a line between Stone haven and Arran I.; the other traverses the country between Dunbar and Girvan. Between these is the rift valley form in g the Central Lowlands; N. of these Lowlands lies the Highland the S. are the Southern Uplands. The Highla nds are built up of granites, schists, and other anc. rocks, running in bands from N.E. to 8.W., and deeply di ected by valleys, the lower of parts which have sunk beneath the sea, forming numerous long sea-lochs or fiords of the W. coast. Chief of these valleys is the lake-filled Glen more, probably on the line of a great dislocation, which divides the Highlands into two parts. The loftiest heights occur in the S.E. or Grampian plateau, where several summits rise above 4,000 ft., such as Ben Macdhui, Cairntoul, Ben Aven, and Ben Nevis (4,406 ft.), the highest peak in Great Britain. The coastal areas of Kincardine, Aberdeen, Moray and Banff, most of Caithne , and Orkney and Shetland are low lying and fertile, containing much Old Red Sandstone soils. The chief entry into the Highlands is by the transverse TayGarry valley. The Southern Uplands are composed of Silurian rocks, overlaid towards the S. by later Palzeozoic rocks, and rise to heights of from 1,300 to 2,700 ft. The surface of the Central lowlands is undulating and cro ed by ranges of low hills, such as the Campsie Fells, Fife hills, etc. The most clearly marked section is Strath more (‘Great Valley’), between the Grampians and the Ochils and Sidlaws. Two other distinctively named sections are the level earses of Stirling and Gowrie, the latter N. of the Firth of Tay. The Central Lowland, generally is the agricultural region of Scotland, though the low land extending round from Aberdeen to the Moray Firth is also devoted to agricalture. See Map, Britisu IsLzs. Practically the whole of Scotland is composed of rocks older than the Coal Measures, except for two patches of rock, covering the islands of Skye and Mull, of recent volcanic origin, and for the Coal Measures belt itself, which constitutes the rift valley or Central Lowlands. A more or je continuous belt of high ground between Cape Wrath and Loch Lommond is Scotland’s main watershed. Being near the W. coast, it throws off the longer rivers on its EH. side. These include the Forth, 60 m., its navigable estuary spanned by the Forth railway bridge; the ‘Tweed, 95 m., noted for its salmon; the Tay, 105 m., also spanned by a railway bridge; the S. Esk, 40 m.; Dee, 87 m.; Don, 82 m.; Deveron, 62 m.; and Spey, 96 m., a very rapid and destructive stream. On the W. and S. the chief streams are the Clyde, 106 m., navigable to Glasgow; and the Nith, 71 m., whose valley penetrates the Southern Uplands. The inland lochs or lakes of Scotland lie principally toward the W. Such are Loch Lomond, the largest 27 sq. m.; Loch Katrine, in the Forth basin, which supplies Glasgow with drinking-water; Lochs Earn, Tay, and Rannoch, in the Tay basin, all centers for fishermen and tourists; Loch Ericht and Loch Laggan; and, in Sutherland, Loch Shin. All contain trout, especially Loch Leven in Kinro . sCOTLAND Climate-—The climate is equable. The prevalent S.W. wind, warmed by the ocean currents and drifts to which it gives rise, raises the winter temp. above that due to latitude. ‘This is particularly noticeable on the W., which is also much or dryne to the leeward of mountain ma es is most marked under the high barrier of the Central Grampians round Cairngorm, Ben Macdhui, and Lochnagar; hence the popularity as summer resorts of Braemar and other places in the Valley of the Dee, Don, and Spey. The most marked climatic effect is that agriculture is pursued in the drier E., and grazing in the W. A minor effect is shown in the suitability of the moist western climate for the cotton industry. In all Scotland about 22 per cent. of the surface is uncultivable. uch of the surface of the Highlands is covered with peat and heather, though the lower slopes afford grazing for sheep, and even the waste and barren heather-clad districts command high rentals as grouse moors and deer forests. The Southern Uplands, of lower elevation and gra grown to their summits, afford excellent sheep pastures, while the plain-land that borders them in the W. is the dairy region of Scotland. This W. plain is balanced by the fertile valley of the ‘T'weed to the S.E.; part of it, known as the Merse, is one of the richest agricultural districts in the country. The Central Lowlands are richly mineralized, and contain much fine arable and pasture land. Vegetable and Animal Productions.— Oats is the chief cereal, and indeed the only one on the moist oceanic border. Wheat is produced in the Lothians, Fife, and the Merse of Berwick, where the average number of bushels to the acre is the largest in Great Britain. Barley, potatoes, and roots are other E. coast coast crops. ‘The average crop of roots in Scotland amounts to half that of England. Important fruit-growing districts are the Carse of Gowrie and round Blairgowrie and Coupar-Angus (small fruit), and in Lan arks hire. The cultivation of flax is carried on. Notable breeds of cattle are Ayrshire, dairy, black landers or kyloes, and black-polled Galloways. Clydesdale gives its name to a famous breed of horses. Both the fresh-water and sea fisheries of Scotland are very important, especially in the —. Aberdeen is the chief fishing center; others are Peter head, Wick, and Stornoway. The chief food-fishes are herring (especially those of Loch Fyne), haddock, flatfish (notably Forth flounders), and cod. Minerals and Manufactures.—Scotland produces c. 15 per cent. of the Brit. coal output, which was 229,000,000 tons in 1919, and c. 4 per cent. of the iron ore produced in the U.K. The largest coalfields are in Lan arks hire, with exand Renfrew (producing half the total eutput); Ayrshire, Fife, the Lothians, and Stirling and Clack mannan. The fron fields lie near the coal, in the counties of Ayr (most productive field), Mid loth i an, and Stirling. Oil shale is mined in Mid loth i an and Linlithgow, and distilled to obtain oil. Other important mineral products are the red and grey granite of Aberdeen shire; limestone, found principally in Fife and Mid loth i an; slate, in Argylishire and Perth shire; and jead, found round Lead hills and Wan fries shire. The most important industries are those of textiles, 150,000 hands employed, metals and machinery, and shipbuilding. Glasgow is the chief seat of all industries. Communications.— Railway lines reach Edinburgh and Glasgow from the 8. by skirting round the Southern Uplands through the E. edge of plain land, and, by means of river valleys, penetrating the heart of the Southern Uplands themselves; while the flat country between Edinburgh and Glasgow has made railway construct i on easy. Northward, connection from Glasgow and Edinburgh 4s provided by (1) the North British, which cro es the Forth and Tay bridges, and runs along the fiat coastal sill to Aberdeen, whence the Great North of Scotland Ry. carries it on to Elgin and to Inverne ; (2) by the Caledonian, which traverses Strath more, through Perth and Forfar, to the coast at Montrose, whence it runs on to Aberdeen. The Highland Ry. from Perth penetrates the valley of the Tay and the Garry to Inverne , whence it continues N. to Wick and Thurso. Scotland po e es three canals. The Caledonian Canal connects the lochs which fill Glen more, and is used principally for tourist traffic, as is the Crinan Canal acro the peninsula of Kintyre. The Forth and Clyde Canal was cut, 1790, between Grange mouth and_ Bowling. A branch extends from near Falkirk to Edinburgh. A ship canal between the Forth and the Clyde has been proposed. Population.—The steadily increasing pop. of Scotland was estimated, 1918, at 4,886,300 (163 per sq. m.). Of these ever 75 per cent. live in the burghs. Emigration is again on the increase. Edinburgh is the cap.; Glasgow the largest town. Many Scot. counties are still known by their old territorial names Religion.—The bulk of the population is Presbyterian—a form of Church government accepted by the Established Church of Scotland, the United Free Church, and the Free Church— all the clergy being equal. General A embli es of these bodies are held in Edinbur gh annually. Roman Catholicism has a footing, especially in_the Highlands; and there is also the Episcopal Church in Scotland. Education.—There are four universities—St. Andrew’s, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh (see UnrvErsitTizs). Elementary education, which is free and com~ pulsory between five and fifteen, is administered by elective. Education Authorities (Act of 1918) for counties and county burghs. There are over 3,360 public schools and several hundred denominational and private schools. Attendance figures are remarkably high, and Scotland enjoys an enviable reputation for the standard and widespread distribution of its education (see Epnvucation). About 200,000 persons speak Gaelic and English, and several you sands (a dwindling number) Gaelic only. Government.—Scotland is represented by 16 peers in the House of Lords and 74 members in the House of Commons. The management of Scot. busine is under the charge of the secretary for Scotland. At the Anglo-Scottish Union, 1707, Scotland retained many institutions of its own, and its old system of law, which, however, has gradually approximated to Eng. law. The supreme court in eivil cases is the Court of Se ion, with thirteen judges, acting in an inner and an outer house: the inner, with two divisions of four judges each; and the outer with five judges, called lords ordinary and sitting in separate courts. Appeals may be made from the lords ordinary to either division of the inner house, and decision is held as decision of Court of Se ion, from which appeals may be made only to the House of Lords. A High Court of Justiciary sits at Edinburgh, and is formed by the lord justice general, the lord justice clerk, and the other judges of the Court of Se ion. Circuit courts meet in various towns throughout the country. Another court with criminal jurisdiction is the sheriff’s court. The principal law officer for the crown is the lord advocate, who is a isted by a solicitor-general and advocates-depute. Practical administration of law is under the control of sheriffs-depute. The public prosecutor for counties is called the procurator-fiscal. History.—Scotland was first visited by Roman troops under Agricola, It was afterwards ravaged by the Norwegjans and Danes. There were many wars also with the kings of England. Robert Bruce finally secured the independence of the country at the famous battle of Bannock burn, in 1314. He was succeeded by his nephew, Robert Stewart, and he by his eldest son Robert. The reigns of the government were seized by the Duke of Albany, who killed the eldest s. of the king. James, the second son, escaped to France and in 1424 returned to Scotland. He was a a inated and was succeeded in 1437 by his son James II. He was killed at the siege of the Castle of Roxburgh. James III. became king at the age of 7, and after a weak reign was murdered. James IV., the brave and generous prince, began his reign in 1488. He was killed at the battle of Flodden and was succeeded by James V., his son, who died in 1542. He was succeeded by the famous Queen Mary who in turn was succeeded by her son James, who in 1603 ascended the throne of England. Thus the two kingdoms were united and their history from that time to the present has been in common, Scotland during the World War.— Altogether, Scotland contributed about 700,000 men to the fighting services, approximately 15 per cent. of pop. The 9th and 15th (Scottish), 51st (Highland), and 52nd (Lowland) Divisions won especial fame, and there were many Scotsmen in the Dominion forces. The Scot. merchant service ana the fishermen of the E. and W. coasts rendered valuable a istance to the navy in keeping open the channels of communication and in combating the submarine menace. Large munition factories were established at Gretna on the Solway, and at George town, Renfrew; there was a special trinitrotoluol factory at Edinburgh; a great expansion of industry took place on the Clyde, embracing, besides shipbuilding and ~ engineering, the construction of aeroplane engines and airships. Greenock had the largest torpedo factory in the country. There were large military hospitals at Stobhill, Glasgow, Craig where, while the Scot. Women’s Hospitals rendered notable service to the Allies, especially in Serbia. Literature. —Of the early Scottish songs only a few fragments survive, such as the cantus on the death of Alexander III. 1298, recorded by Wyntoun. The romance of Sir Tristrem has been claimed for Thomas of Ercildoune; and he may have had some connection with the prophedls in the third ‘fytte’ of the fragmentary romance of Thomas of Erceidoune. That one, at least, of the old Scots ‘makers,’ the ‘Clerk of Tranent,’ wrote an alliterative romance may be inferred from Dunbar’s Lament. And if a certain Huchieson, or ‘Huchown of the Awle Ryale,’ mentioned in terms of high praise by Wyntoun, be a Scotsman, and another than ‘Clerk of Tranent,’ then three other alliterative romances were the work of a Scotsman, although of these only The Pystyll of Swete Susan has been identified beyond dispute. The earliest work in the Scot. vernacular that has retained a certain popularity down to the present time is the Bruce of John Barbor, in the octosyllabic couplet; but both it and the much later and poetically much inferior c. 13895-1424) are now mainly of interest from their historical theme. To King James I., if he was the author of The Kingis Quair, may probably be attributed the beginnings of the Chaucerian vogue in Scotland; if he wrote Cristis Kirk and Plebis to the Play, he was also an accomplished master in verse of distinctively northern tradition. To the earlier half of the 15th cent. belong probably those burlesques of the old romances, The Taill of Rauf Coilzear, Cokelbies Sow, King Berdok, and The Gyre Carling. But the author of none oi these is known. Blind Harry, though sharing in the Chaucerian influence of the period, was neverthele , as he himself confe es, only a ‘burel’ or unlearned man, After the Reformation merely secular poetry came under a ban. The Eng. literary revival began to affect Scotland: Ajexander Scott and Alexander Montgomerie, for instance, show closer a imjlation to the English, and may fitly be called the last of the old makers. Among the older Scot. specimens of vernacular prose are the Scots version of Wyclif’s New Testament and the translations of Sir Gilbert of the Haye. The older vernacular is well represented in John Bellenden’s translation, 1536, of Hector Boece’s Latin History of Scotland, and in The Complaynt of Scotland 1549—an adaptation for Scot. purposes of Le Quadrilogue Invectif of Alain Chartier. The Chronicle of Robert Lindsay of Pit scottie, though confused in its dates and untrustworthy in many particulars, is a remarkably graphic narrative, both its style and its version of historical facts being largely borrowed from the old ballads. But even the Scots tongue of Pit scottie, or his transcribers, has an Eng. coloring; and this is still more manifest in the Scots tractates of George Buchanan, and in those of his great opponent, Bishop John Leslie, whose Scots History of Scotland, written for Mary Stewart’s perusal, is. however, couched in a purer vernacular, John Knox employed a_ picturesque combination of Scots and English, both in his unique History of the Reformation in Scotland and in his political and eccles. manifestoes; and in the History of the Kirk of Scotland by David Cal der wood, 1574-1635, and the prose works of James VI. before his acce ion to the Eng. throne, the modifying infiuences of English are still more apparent. The vernacular prose is also represented by the minutely graphic Autobiography and Diary of James Melville, and the Memoirs of his own Life by Sir James Melville of Hahill. With the acce ion of James VI. to the Eng. throne Scot. vernacular verse almost ceased to be cultivated. But apart from the balladists, the chief Scot. poets of the early part of the century wrote in English, the earliest poet of the revived vernacular muse being Robert Sempill, whose Life and Death of Habbie Simson is in the six-line stave afterwards so variously and brilliantly utilized by Burns. Half a century or more later the chief names are Lady the mournful and romantic Werena my heart licht; Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw, 1677-1727, authore of Hardyknute; and William Hamilton of Gilbert field. In 1706-11 was published Watson’s Choice Collection of Scottish Poems. But the main agent in the vernacular revival was the enterprising Allan Ramsay. His own poetic efforts won him much fame, but he probably exercised greater influence as editor and publisher of the Tea-table Miscellany and of The Evergreen. Apart from song-writers, the chief Scot. poet between Ramsay and Burns was Robert Fergu on, whose descriptive pieces in the vernacular, though modeled on those of Ramsay, po e a wit which, if le broadly humorous, is more subtle and incisive. But the poetic vernacular revival culminates in Robert Burns (see Burns). Poetry of a certain individuality, and po e ing something of the old vernacular flavor, was accomplished by several of his succe ors, such as the Barone Nairne, James Hogg, Robert Tanna hill, Sir Alexander Boswell, Alex Elizabeth Hamilton, Joanna Baillie, William Laidlaw, William Thom, Wil-| liam Nicholson, Robert Gilfillan, and James Ballan tyne; and the old Scot. art is still e ayed by numbers of versiflers. But even in the case of verse writers of such accomplishment as Logie Robertson, Charles Murray, and R L. Stevens on, the vernacular art savors too |} much of mere reminiscence of the older writers.