EDUCATION

is the name applied to the systematic instruction given by each succeeding generation to the young of the race to fit them for the work of life. The word itself is derived from the Latin verb educare, which means to rear, to nourish, to bring up, and also to educate. Long before the dawn of civilization men saw that the young had to be prepared for the battle of life; had to learn how to make and how to use the offensive and defensive weapons employed against their enemies; how to form or build shelters to protect themselves against the weather and against their foes; how to make traps or snares for the wild things on which they fed; how, in fact, to use their powers of mind and body in such a way as to secure for themselves the fullest and most satisfactory life po ible under the cireumstacnes in which they found themselves. While education thus understood would be the story of man on the earth, an account of his more or le satisfactory, but always continuous, efforts to perfect the relations between | his desires and his environment, it would have to embrace also an account of the conflict between the demands of communities and the rights of individuals. Education, however, as we understand it, is more limited in its scope. It is the instrument employed by the State for the training of its citizens. Greeks. The Greeks were the first Europe ans to treat education as a science. The results they obtained were good, and have to a certain extent determined the course taken by European education ever since. Plato defined the aim of the education of which he gives us an account in the Republic, to be the ‘development in the body and in the soul of all the perfection which it is po ible for them to attain.’”?’ This was the Greek ideal of what education should aim at; a high ideal indeed; but one that omits an element of immense importance which we find introduced in Milton’s definition of the ‘end of learning,’ that is, the aim of education. Milton boldly declares this to be: “To repair the ruin of our first parents by regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge to love Him, as we may the nearest by po e ing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the heavenly grace of faith makes up the highest perfection.” Perfection is the end sought in both cases, and which seems the nobler it s unnece ary tosay. This impre ion is deepened when he proceeds toa declare that as “‘Our understanding cannot... arrive so clearly to the knowledge of God and things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creatures, the same method is nece arily to be followed in all discreet teaching.”’ Aristotle. By Aristotle the order of education was: first, education of the body, the just and proportionate development of its powers. The instrument employed for this purpose was gymnastics; not the gymnastics employed in training profe ional athletes, but more moderate exercises; for, as the philosopher insists, too strenuous bodily exertion is apt toe spoil the child, because body and mind must not be hard worked at the same time. Music, according to him, had various aims: education proper, the training of the affections, and the occupation of leisure. Drawing was taught as a branch of music for the purpose of developing the child’s sense of beauty, mathematics were taught to cultivate his intellect, and dialectic (logic and philosophy) to prepare the pupil for a scientific training. Plato. To the idealistic philosopher Plato, the whole life of man, at least the whole of what we may call the active life, was educative. Education was State-controlled, and at the end of the first six years, spent by the child in the seclusion of family life, the State took charge. The aim of the education proposed by Plato was to develop in the child the cardinal virtues—honour to parents, love of fellow-citizens, courage, truthfulne , and self-control. From the seventh to the tenth year the training was mainly in gymnastics; from the tenth to the thirteenth the child learned to read and to write; from the thirteenth to the sixteenth his affections and his sense of the beautiful were cultivated through learning poetry and studying music; from the seventeenth to the twentieth year he applied himself mainly to athletics, so that he might be qualified to take his share in the defence of the State. At twenty men were called upon to choose their occupation; to turn their minds to the study of the sciences; and to shape by 62 I DUCAT I ON yractical military and other services o the State that character which it vas the aim of education to form. ‘rom thirty to thirty-five Plato suposes the citizens of his ideal republic © devote themselves to the study of Dialectics, the method of purely ntellectual knowledge, by which eas on, using hypothesis, arrives at he first principles of things. From hirty-five to fifty the life of the itizen was to be given up to public ervice, that is, to the promotion in he position for which he was best itted of the general well-being. Greek Philosophers. The training et forth by the Greek philosophers was he training thought nece ary to fit man to be a ruler. As the Greek city states were slave states, and most of he manual work was performed by laves, that nece ary part of the raining of the youth of the comnunity is ignored. This fact has had, indoubtedly, an enormous influence yn the ideas of education put forward since. The preliminary training denanded by the Greeks included, yesides gymnastics, grammar and music. At a later time these were in der stood to incluue the seven arts: srammar, Khetoric, Dialectic (Lriyum), and Arithmetic, Music, Geonetry, and Astronomy (Quadrivium). fo the Greeks, myths were the instruments of the earliest education, the 1im of which was the development of 1 character in the citizen which would ead him to give his best and most loyal services to the State. Greek and Roman Education. The 1im of Greek education was the formation of the philosophic thinker, the man fitted by nature and training (0 guide and direct the energies of the man of action. Roman education, on she other hand, directed its efforts mainly to the moulding of the man of 1etion himself. The Romans adopted the form rather than the spirit of Greek education. The aim of Roman sducation was to make a man who sould do things; a practical man, a man full of energy, who was ever ready to sacrifice himself in the interests of the State; a man who knew the laws and who regulated his conduct by them; who reverenced his father and his country’s gods; and found his chief pleasure in the complete overthrow and utter destruction of his country’s foes. He could discourse eloquentiy and not unphilosophic ally; and he spared neither himself nor others in his effort to maintain the freedom of his country, and to bring destruction on the enemies of Rome. Roman education began in the home, and during the earlier years was largely directed by the mother. Later the preparation of the boy for life was 59 ‘too, EDUCATION taken over by the father; but it is probable that from very early times many, if not most, Roman boys were sent to school, where, under the magister literarius (elementary teacher), the grammatic us (advanced teacher), and the rhetor (profe or), they acquired the knowledge and accomplishments it was needful for them to obtain. Roman Schools. The Roman schools, elementary and secondary, seem to have been conducted in @ verandah, and boys and girls seem to have been taught in the same school. The chief Roman writers on education are Cicero, Seneca, and Quintilian. Quintilian tells us that Cato also wrote a treatise on the subject, but that that work had been lost. The oratorical training of which Quintilian was the expositor seems to have been largely out of connection with real life; and, though he claims that the orator must be a widely cultured, wise, and honourable man, seems to have developed a tendency to the bombastic abuse of ornate and stilted speech. The practical effects, of the corruption of family education were far from satisfactory. Moral degradation followed, and humanity seems to have been rescued only by the introduction of a new ideal of life, which substituted for the pagan self-reliance, self-control, moderation, and proportion, self denial, self-forgetfulne , and humility; which made the last, indeed, the chief virtue, and looked on pride and self-confidence as spiritual sins. Christianity. The introduction of Christianity was followed by the inroads into the Roman Empire of barbarous tribes from the north and east. Before these attacks the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and with it to a greater or le extent the educational system of the time. It must be remembered that between three and four hundred years elapsed between the downfall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginnings of the Holy Roman Empire under Charlemagne. Cla ical or pagan culture, as profane learning, was at a discount, and the aim of the monasticism which grew out of the introduction of Christianity was mystic absorption in the contemplation of God. This interval was followed by tho efforts of Charlemagne to’ revive Roman culture, and to establish schools throughout Western Hurope. In this he was aided by Alcuin and other scholars from England, where in the comparative quiet that followed the conquest of Britain there had grown up a system of education. Throughout his dominions three 63 EDUCATION cla es of schools were established by Charlemagne, the Palace School, the Bishop’s School, and the Monastery School. These were intended to take the place of the splendid system of public schools that had grown up under the Roman Empire. The course of studies established in these medigeval schools, following the practice of Greece and Rome, was divided into two parts: the Zriviwm, including Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric; and the Quadrivium, which embraced Geometry, Arithmetic, Music, and Astronomy. Education in the palace or castle schools had a different aim. It sought to develop the bodily powers, and to awake in the pupils that respect for the weak which was shown in the worship of women, and that love of justice, and belief in its supremacy, which characterized the chivalry of the Middle Ages. The scholastic education of this time laid special stre on formal logic and metaphysics. Latin was taught, was, indeed, the universal language of the period. Questions about the nature of the unseen and the spiritual oceupied much of men’s minds: while their time was taken up in discu ing the character of universals, the true realities which lay behind the individua i manifestations of experience. As a rule, the physical world was ignored, and human intelligence disregarded; but there were notable exceptions, among which the teachings of Bishop Gro eteste (died 1253) and of Roger Bacon (1214 to 1294) take a prominent place. It was during the period of scholasticism that universities, in imitation of the trade guilds of the time, sprung up in different parts of Hurope, particularly in Spain, Italy, France, and England. To the famous schools both in England and on the Continent scholars flocked from all parts, and their instruction presented little difficulty, as Latin, the language in which the instruction was given, was the common language of scholars in Western Europe. The establishment ef universities in different countries was a sign rather than a cause or result of that intellectual and spiritual awakening which, after nearly a you sand years of almost complete stagnation, manifested itself among the peoples of Europe. Renai ance. It is usual to date the Renai ance from 1453, the fall of Constantinople; but it must not be forgotten that owing to the clash between East and West, the struggle between Christianity and Mohammedanism (the Crusades, as these religious wars were called), there had from the end of the eleventh century been a considerable change of outlook among the nations of Western Europe. This was specially the case in Italy, where city states, not unlike those of Greece in their character, had sprung up, and where, as in Greece in the time of Pericles, there had been the great outburst of literary activity which is a ociated with the names of Boccaccio, Dante, and Petrarch. In Northern and Western Europe the intelligence stimulated by the new learning was directed towards the improvement of the method of study. All study was linguistic. Latin was the instrument of common intercourse; Greek and Hebrew were sacred as the tongues in which the Scriptures had been conveyed; it was no wonder, therefore, that the humanistic education was almost entirely confined to the study of languages. Sturm (1507 to 1589) drew up a scheme of studies which had long a great influence on the school courses of instruction throughout Europe. Reformation. The action against authority which marked the Reformation period was specially noted for the reaction against the purely verbal education given to the young, whose education, as we learn from Locke, was calculated to teach them ‘‘not to believe, but to dispute,’’ and to fit them ‘‘for the university, not for the world.”? On the Continent Rabelais (1483 to 1533) led this realistic movement, which was continued by Montaigne (1533 to 1592) in France, and under the influence of Bacon by Brinsley and Hoole in Engiand, and Ratke and Comenius on the Continent. Up to this time the chief English writers on the subject of education had been Sir Thomas Elyot in his vovernour, Roger <As charm in _ his Scholemaster, and Richard Mulcaster in his Positions. 16th Century. The intellectual activity which marked in England the closing decades of the sixteenth and the first part of the seventeenth century saw the i ue of Milton’s Tractate, one of the most famous books on education ever produced. The Yractate discu es only the kind of education that should be given to gentlemen’s sons between the ages of twelve and twenty-one, so that it is strictly limited in its application, as it does not deal with the education of the people, nor with the education of women. The ideal which Milton put before him as the aim of ‘‘a complete and generous education” was ‘‘to fit a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace and war.”’ Milton in his Tractate discu es studies, exercise, and diet, showing that he clearly understood that edueation was con 64 I DUCAT I ON erned with the body as weil as the nind and spirit. 17th Century. Towards the close of he seventeenth century Locke, an inglish physician and_ philosopher, yublished (1693) his Zhowghts con erning Education, a book which nfluenced immensely the character nd direction of future educational tudies. As he informs his readers in is letter to Edward Clarke, he ounsels everyone ‘‘after having well xamined and distinguished what ancy, custom, or reason advises in he case... to promote everywhere hat way of training up youth... vhich is the easiest, shortest, and ikeliest to produce virtuous, useful, md able men in their distinct allings.’? He begins his e ay with the tatement, ‘“‘ A sound mind in a sound ody is a short but full description of a lappy state in this world,” and the uggestions he makes as to the yhysical, moral, and _ intellectual raining of the young are for the most art sound. He decried a too severe liscipline, maintaining that “‘If the nind be curbed and humbled too much in children,... they lose all heir vigour and industry.” On the ther hand, he held that if you ‘Remove hope and fear, there is an md of all discipline’; and he held hat, as far as po ible, ‘‘Childish wctions are to be left perfectly free and in restrained.’’ He applied the science ff psychology to the study of child ature, and of the methods to be mployed in training it; and so prey a a red the way for the modern nethods of education. ‘‘Interest is he secret of Herbart,”’ according to me of his devoted admirers. Locke eems to have anticipated this when ie declares that ‘‘ None of the things hey are to learn should ever be made, burden to them, or imposed on them is a task.” Rou eau. Though his attitude owards the universe was utterly pposed to the attitude of Locke, tou eau drew almost all that was ractical in his scheme for the eduation of the young from the English yriter. Rou eau’s work, though argely inspired by Locke, was entially of a revolutionary kind. t held that manis the great corrupter; hat ‘‘ Everything is good as it comes rom the hands of the Creator; and hat man’s handling makes every hing worse.” In effect he said, leave he child as much as po ible alone. \n attempt constantly to direct him an only result in stupefying him. It 3 true we receive our education from ature, from men, and from things; ut nature must be our guide in deternining the use of the other two. As ew restraints as po ible must be imposed on the child, and the use of books should be prohibited. For the child there should be ‘“‘no other book but the world,” and ‘‘no other instruction but facts.’”? The child’s education he divides into four stages, infancy, childhood, boyhood, and youth. The first two stages last till the beginning of the thirteenth year, when the boy is supposed to be fit for instruction. From such instruction the teaching of words must disappear, and the teaching of things must take its place. The subjects most suitable for instruction were, Rou eau declared, measuring, drawing, geometry, speaking, and singing. Books, he declares, are usele , are, indeed, altogether harmful. The method he advocates is the method of self teaching and the use of the senses, which Rou eau held would work to the profit of the intellizence. The child’s knowledge shouiu rest on his own observation, and not on belief in authority, and each child should be taught a manual trade. At fifteen, according to Rou eau, real education begins; and it is the duty of the teacher to study the subject he has to act upon, in other words, to discover the nature of the pupil, which must in all cases determine the means and the method employed in his education. Two things must be taught. These are the true relations, racial and individual, that exist among men; and how to direct and control the emotions aroused by the environment so that the best results may arise. Here he finds occasion for the use of moral teaching and for instruction in religion. The facts of history must be placed before him; but he must be left to form his own judgment. He is now to be taught religion as a help to the regulation of the pa ions; but not the religion of any particular sect. His time is to be given up largely to reading and to the acquirement of taste; to the study of history and eloquence; and to attendance at the theatre. ' The revolutionary doctrines preached by Rou eau in his Hmile and in his other educational works had an immense effect on the Continent, and particularly on the work of one of his most ardent admirers, the Swi farmer and schoolmaster Pestalozzi, an eccentric, dubbed by his schoolfellows *‘ Harry Oddity of Fools town.’ Thinking the education demanded for Hmile by Rou eau vastly superior to that which he himself received, he very early became an ardent admirer of the system advocated by the French philosopher, and an eager reformer. mile and the Contrat Social were condemned by the 65 EDUCATION magistrates of Ziirich, and Pestalozzi and some of his fellow-students were imprisoned for the Memorial in which they defended these works. Later, Pestalozzi determined to be a farmer. He was married at the age of twenty three, and started growing madder and vegetables on some poor land near Ziivich. On the land he built for himself a house, the Neuhof. Pestalozzi. In the winter of 1774 he hit upon the expedient of taking into his house some twenty poor children of the neighbourhood, whom _ he treated as his own. They worked with him in summer in the fields, and in winter in the house. Improved health for the children, increased intelligence and a manifest devotion to their benefactor were some of the results speedily displayed, and the experiment drew much attention to itself. Urged on by his love for the children, Pestalozzi took in a larger number, and in a very short time found himself bankrupt. In this period of seeming disaster Pestalozzi turned author. Fhe books which he produced were greedily read on the Continent, and aroused the greatest interest. After some work at Stanz and at Burgdorf, Pestalozzi settled to work in the eastle of Yverdun on Lake Neuchatel, which became in the early years of the nineteenth century a place of pilgrimage for European students and lovers of education. Forced to leave Yverdun in 1815, he continued his work at Clindy ill 1824. Froebel. Fried rich Froebel spent the years 1807 to 1809 at Yverdun, and so fitted himself to carry on the work Pestalozzi had to some extent made popular. His name, however, is specially a ociated with the schools for very young children to which he gave the name of Kindergarten, that is, ‘gardens of children,’ places where young children, like young plants, were properly watched and tended. For the children in these schools their employment was to be play, play from which and by which they acquired clear hotions regarding themselves and their environment. ** Wducation,” he a erted, ‘‘should lead and guide man to clearne concerning himself and in himself, to peace with nature, and to unity with God.’’ He held that powers were developed by exercise; that failure to use any part of the body or mind led to the shrinkage of the part, and sometimes even to its complete lo . He held that if we wish to develop the body we must exercise the body, and that, similarly, if we wish to develop the intellect or the emotions they must be exercised. He insists that teachers must be careful to interfere as little as po ible; must remember at all times that the aim of teaching is “‘to bring ever more and more out of man rather than to put more and more into him.” He based his system on action; agreed with Montaigne that “children’s ga:naes were their most serious occupailons”; and with Locke that “All toe plays and diversions of children should be directed towards good and useful habits.’’ Froebel was not the founder of infant schools. These were first established on the Continent and in Britain with the object of helping mothers. In Britain their establishment is a ociated with the names of the educational enthusiasts James Buchanan and Samuel Wilders pin. Herbart. Nearly ten years before Froebel’s stay with Pestalozzi at Yverdun, Herbart, next to Kant and Hegel the most influential of German philosophers, visited the inspired educationist at Burgdorf, and found him employing methods based on the principles which he himself had worked out in his psychology. To both it was clear that there is a definite order in which subjects should be taught to the children, and that this order is determined, not merely by the relation of the subjects to each other, but by their power of satisfying the growing wants and capacities of the child. Pestalozzi had arrived intuitively at a method, and had practically applied it, which Herbart had scientifically worked out as applicable to the whole educational field. Three years later Herbart published pamphlets on Pestalozzi’s best known book, How Gertrude teaches her Children, and on The A.B.C. of Sense-perception, and in these showed what weight he attached to observation as an instrument of education. Two years later he published one of his most notable works on education, The Esthetic Revelation of the World, and in 1806 General Pedagogy. In 1809 he was appointed profe or of philosophy at Kdénigsberg, where he remained till 1833, and where his services to the cause of education, both by his writings and by his establishment of normal schools and experimental schools,cannot be exaggerated. He warns teachers not to educate too much; to be careful not to destroy the individuality of the’ child, such individuality being that which characterizes individuals of the same cla . He lays the greatest stre on the importance to the teacher of child study, maintaining that he will be unable to teach unle he knows the child as he is. For Herbart the aim of education is summed up in morality, “the highest aim of humanity and consequently of education,” itself. ‘‘I have no conception,” he writes, ‘of education without instruction, just as 66 / \DUCAT I ON do not acknowledge any instruction hat does not educate.” ‘“‘Instrucion,’”” he says elsewhere, ‘‘ will form he circle of thought, and education he character; the last is notning vithout the first.”” _ A great deal, accorc*ng to Herbart, lepends upon the pupil himself, who ‘erasps rightly what is natural to im,’? and who must be saved from he tendency to one-sidedne in vhich following his bent would reult, by the cultivation in him of nany-sidedne . This cultivation inrolves the control of the pupil’s nental activity, and the instrument or this control is interest, which auses the pupil’s complete absorption n its object. For the attainment of his Herbart proposes certain formal teps of instruction. These steps ire usually set forth as (1) Pre para i on, (2) Presentation, (3) Comparison, 4) Generalization, (5) Application. 19th Century. The nineteenth entury was a period of continuously ncreasing interest in education, and ff a generally growing belief in its itility. It was taken up by the xovernments of the different counries, and ordered and regulated ulmost out of existence. Seven years vefore the death of Pestalozzi the irst public grant for education was made by the British Parliament, and ‘rom that time up to the present the Government has continued to extend its power over the education of the country. For a long time _ the Government in Britain was satisfied to subsidize elementary education; but later it insisted on hard-and-fast lines of instruction. So thoroughly were these regulated in most countries that a French Minister of Education could boast he was able to say what work every child in France was engaged in at that particular moment. Government. In Britain it was only bit by bit, and with very considerable reluctance, that the Government took upon itself the responsibility for the education of the country. In Scotland a national system of general education, constituted in 1560, remained in force until reconstructed by the Hducation Act of 1872. (See SCOTLAND.) Compulsory education was introduced into England in 1870, together with what was described as payment by results; and, for some time, the aim which the teacher had to keep before him was the production at the annual examination of the largest number of pupils who could satisfy the tests in Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic, or, as they were called, the ‘three R’s,’ and so earn the Government grant. For between thirty and forty years this unnatural and mechanical system remained in force. From 1864 onwards Commi ion after Commi ion sought to reduce English secondary education to order. The most notable of these was The Bryce Commi ion of Enquiry into Secondary Hducation, 1894-5, whose recommendations have since been put into force by legislation. One of the results of the increasing interest in education throughout England was the founding, early in the latter half of last century, of | great day schools, like the City of London, St. Paul’s, and Merchant Taylors, in London and other large cities; and, after the pa ing of the Education Act of 1902, the establishment everywhere of Council Secondary Schools. 19th Century Works. Of the immense number of works on education i ued during the last half of the nineteenth century, perhaps the best known are those of Herbert Spencer and of Profe or Bain. The 'former seeks to explain education from the Darwin i an standpoint, and the latter to determine from psychology the intellectual value of the | various subjects taught in school, and the average age at which they should be taught to children. Of practical English educators during the nineteenth century, the most outstanding names are undoubtedly those of Arnold of Rugby, Thring of Upping ham, and Abbott of the City of London School. Recent Times. In recent times the advances mude in the theoretical and practical studies of the sciences of enthropology, physiology, and psychology have exercised an enormous influence on educational theories and practices. Careful observations of poe, children by scientific observers ike Darwin, Dear born, and Preyer have added greatly to our knowledge of child-nature; and helped to suggest new methods of studying it and developing it. The result has been the promulgation within the present century of a number of educational methods, some of which, in contrast to the older practices, must seem almost revolutionary. Among these must be remembered the ‘ Heuristic Method’ of teaching science put forward by Profe or H. EH. Armstrong. The object of the method is to put the student as completely as may be in the position of an original investigator; and it has been cla ed by writers on education as being, like so many other modern methods, a ‘play method.’ Montes sori. Froebel, in his kindergarten, was one of the first to intro| duce succe fully the play method in ‘education, and the ‘gifts’ by which the plan was carried through were of 67 EDUCATION his own devising; but such cannot be said of Dr. Montes sori, whose method of education engro es s0 much attention at the present time. The Montes sori apparatus was _ originally devised by Dr. Seguin for the instruction of mental defectives. Dr. Montes sori used the apparatus first for the training of young children; but the cardinal feature of the Montes sori system is the determined effort to make the child entirely responsible for his own education, and to interfere as little as po ible with his development. The apparatus is so contrived that it can only be used in one way if the problem is to be solved; so the child is forced to attend to the differences in size and shape and carefully to compare the different pieces. In addition, the Montes sori system attempts to cultivate the social virtues; teaches the children to live and to work and play with others, and so to learn to be well-mannered. The teacher in this system retires into the background, and the children are left to go their own way, to choose their own tasks, and to be their own critics. Great attention is also given to the physical development of the children. Experimental Education. This has been attempted both in Germany— where the need for it was first put forward by Kant—and in England; but it is in the United States of America that the chief advances in this direction have been made. There the Binet attempt to.neasure the intelligence of the child, to fix in fact a metric scale of intelligence, has been elaborated, and the Binet-Simon system of tests devised, and later modified by L. M. Terman. There, too, schools have been established which have tried the working out of what may be described as the noninterference with the pupil principle. Among these may be mentioned the ‘George Junior Republic’ and the Gary Schools. The latter, we are told by their founder, were ‘‘not instituted to turn out good workers for the steel company, but for the educational value of the work they involved.’ ‘lo this must be added the ‘Dalton Laboratory Plan’, tried lately as an experiment by Mi Helen Park hurst in a public secondary day school in Dalton. By this plan, the timetable is abolished, the child undertakes to get up a certain amount of work each month in each particular subject, and is left free to distribute his time as he chooses, so that he can devote more time to those subjects in which he is backward. The school is divided into departments (laboratories) each under a specialist who gives the help needed, but leaves the pupil to himself as much as po ible. —BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bartley, The Schools for the People; Norwood and Hope, Higher Education of Boys in England; Quick, E ays on Educational Reformers; Browning, An Introduction to the History of education Theories; Sleight, Educational Values and Methods: Nunn, Education: Its Data and First Principles; Will on, What do we mean by Education? The New Teaching, edited by Adams; Kerr, Scottish Education; Morrison, Education Authorities’ Handbook; Dewey, Schools of To-morrow; Rusk, Introduction to Experimental Education: Montes sori, The Montes sori Method and The Advanced Montes sori Method.