Education

A recent work on this subject by a Chinese begins with the obvious statement that "the beginnings of education in China can be traced as far back as the beginning of her civilization." This may be said of any people, but it is typical of the Chinese desire to attribute everything they have to the days of Yao and Shun. Because it is said that "Yao examined his officers every three years" he is regarded as originating the modern competitive I examination. I Omitting reference, however, to education as I mentioned in the earlier part of the Shu Ching, we 1 find that in the Chou dynasty there were two kinds! of school, one kind in the capital and one kind in I the country, in the imperial domain and in the j feudal states alike. We are expected to believe I that each hamlet IMG:p165_5.png:Chinese characters lii (twenty-five families) "had 166 its hall of study called Shu IMG:p166_1.png:Chinese characters; each village a school called hsiamj IMG:p166_2.png:Chinese characters; each district a school called h.iii IMG:p166_3.png:Chinese characters and each department of a State a college called hnang IMG:p166_4.png:Chinese characters Every day "all the inhabitants of each village, men and women, in going out to the fields in the morning and in returning home in the evening, received instruction in the halls of study." The instruction was given by "men of strong moral character," officials retired from public service at 70 years old. Truly a Golden Age! As an enthusiatic New-China student says, the Chou ideal represented "a combination of Spartan and A then i an ideals of education." This wonderful system however began its decadence in the eighth century B.C.; and though schools existed in the days of Confucius and Mencius, they were private ventures, without government supervision or aid. These philosophers had not only to exhort the state to do its duty, they also provided the chief material and text books for all Chinese education down to last generation. The Han dynasty was marked by a great revival of learning, and educational work was reorganized under Wu Ti (140-86 B.C.). China became filled with schools. It must be noted however that public offices were not, as in earlier times, filled with succe ful students alone; there were also other ways to civil employment. Further, by education being henceforth confined to one system of philosophy, it became conservative and formal. During the three centuries after the Han dynasty, education, like all institutions, had an irregular and troubled time. Not to mention ordinary schools, the T'ai Hsiieh IMG:p166_5.png:Chinese characters and the Kuo Tzu Hsiieh (later Kuo Tzii Chien q.v.) IMG:p166_6.png:Chinese characters Were opened and closed again several times. Con fuci an ism had to contend with Buddhist and Taoist influences during this period. The practice of selecting officials by examination fell into abeyance and offices became more or le hereditary. IMG:p166_7.png:Chinese characters With the coming of the T'ang dynasty education IMG:p166_8.png:Chinese characters established.in the capital, the K«o-T«u IMG:p166_9.png:Chinese characters once more reorganized. There were six colleges established in the capital, the Kuo Tzu Chien being the chief and controlling the others. In the country every village had its school. The Five Cla ics were the chief part of all education and officers were selected by a literary examination. In 740, the Han-lin Yiian was established, a kind of Imperial Academy attached to the court and largely devoted to the study of difficulties in literature. After the first century of T'ang rule, Taoists returned to favour and colleges to study Taoism were instituted, of equal rank with the Confucian. Changes also took place with regard to the selection of officials. The Sung dynasty restored the Kuo Tzfi Chien and ulhcr colleges extinguished during the Five Dynasties Period, and organized provincial schools. Law, Medicine, Mathematics, etc., also had sjjecial schools which, however, did not last long. The system of examination was laid down, and rules made which have lasted almost till the present. Selection of officers by competitive examination was the rule, especially towards the close of the period. Two Sung philosophers who had a great influence on education were Chxj Hsi and Wang An-shih. The Kuo Tzu Chien was once more opened by Khubilai Khan, schools were encouraged and the examination system re-established, but with Mongolian for the Mongols added. In the iniddle of the dynasty, there were 24,000 schools in the country, but it is said that many had only a nominal existence and the imperial decrees were not fully carried out. Probably the same is true in all dynasties. The famous Three-Character Cla ic 3. IMG:p166_10.png:Chinese characters San tzu ching was produced in this period, by Wang Ying-lin. During the Ming dynasty there were many decrees for the re-organization of colleges and schools, and once again every village was provided for, on paper at least. The competitive examinations were also modified. The philosopher and educationist Wang Yang-ming lived during this Of the Manchu dynasty we have the usual period. announcement that it restored the Kuo Tzu Chien. The great literary monarchs, K'ang Hsi and his succe ors, promoted education both Chinese and Manchu, and once again a very complete system seems to have been decreed, with monthly, quarterly and annual examinations in all schools and colleges! It is stated that this last perfection ruined the provincial schools, because students soon found that promotion depended on attendance at the examinations, not at the school. Competitive examinations reached their fullest development. Education was not sought for its own sake but for office; and the State cared for the education of the people only so far as it might thus supply itself with servants. The educational system which thus lasted for centuries until the end of the nineteenth may be briefly described as follows: — When about seven years old a boy began school life. His first book was the Three Character Cla ic (q-v.). The characters were learned by sound and shape, but the meaning was not explained at first. The learning was done by chanting or shouting, a few words at time, till the whole had at last been got by heart. As each pupil shouted a different part of the book in his own key and according to the strength of his lungs, the din and discord were striking. The master heard each boy repeat what he had learned, the pupil turning his back that he 167 might not glance at the open book. He thus learned some 400 characters. He then attacked in the same way the You sand Character Cla ic (q.v.), thus adding a large number of new characters, after which he began on the serious work of his scholastic life, the Four Books. These were all committed to memory by shouting, and after a time explanations were given of the parts already learned. At the same time the student learned to write, — a long and difficult labour. When some way on in his course, he also learned to compose an e ay or wen chang IMG:p167_1.png:Chinese characters according to very artificial rules of composition. Then poetry was attempted. The youth next sat for two test, examinations which would qualify him to enter the contest for the degree of bachelor hsiu ts'ai (q.v.). This last examination was held twice every three years in each prefectural city, and lasted one day. If succe ful, he became nominally a servant of the State, might wear official dre and could purchase from an official, or get by influence, some subordinate civil 2)ost from which he might work his way upward. Or the bachelor might proceed with his studies of the Fire Cla ics (q.v.), then sit for the master's degree, chi i jen (q.v.). This examination was held triennially at the provincial IMG:p167_2.png:Chinese characters and lasted nine (lays. Accurate knowledge of the Four Books and Five Cla ics with considerable skill in composing es.say and poems wei'e required. There might be you sands of competitors, while only a few tens of pa es were permitted. The succe ful candidates might then pa to the triennial examination at Peking, for the Doctorate, chin shih, j[g j; advancing scholar. There might be some eight or nine you sand candidates. A first examination was a repetition of the chi i jen examination; it lasted three days, (not consecutive), and was simply to select the three or four hundred best scholars who might proceed to the examination for the doctorate. But even this number was reduced by a further preliminary examination which lated only one day. Then came the real examination for the degree. Succe ful candidates then sat for the examination called tten shih, as being held within the palace; it lasted one day. The ten succe ful candidates at the head of the list had special honour, being presented to the Emperor, etc.; the first three could leave the palace by the central portal, while others must use the side doors; they were entertained by the ' Mayor of the capital ' IMG:p167_3.png:Chinese characters shun t'ien, etc.; the first of the three, and therefore the first scholar in.the empire in that examination was termed chuang yiian and became First-cla compiler in the Han-lin Yiian. After this a further examination of the new doctors was held, the best of them becoming Members of the Han-lin, others secretaries, subprefects, etc., etc. With the opening of ports in 1842 a certain amount of western education was introduced by tbe Protestant mi ionaries, and increased in quantity and influence year by year. After the Tientsin treaty (1860) the need was evident for translators and interpreters, in order to carry out diplomatic intercourse with the various Treaty Powers, and in 1862, the T'ung Wen Kuan IMG:p167_4.png:Chinese characters ft was established in the capital for the training of official interpreters. In 1866 it was first called a College, science was added to the language curriculum, and in 1869, Dr. W. A. P. Martin was made President. Two auxiliary schools were opened in Canton and Shanghai. After this various schools were opened, for mechanical engineering at the Kiangnan Arsenal, for naval students at Foochow, etc., etc. Apart from these special foundations, the introduction of some mathematics into the public examinations was a striking change, though it was a merely nominal improvement at first, in the absence of capable teachers or examiners. The publication of Chang Chth-tung's IMG:p167_5.png:Chinese characters Ch'iian hsiieh p'ien had a very powerful effect on education. Serious reforms began after the Boxer Outbreak. In 1903 a Committee of Educational Affairs, IMG:p167_6.png:Chinese characters Hsiieh Wu Ch'u, was established, and developed in 1905 into the Ministry of Education IMG:p167_7.png:Chinese characters Hsiieh Pu. Detailed and far-reaching schemes were prepared, and some progre was being made when the Revolution threw all things into disorder. The Republic has been too much occupied and impoverished to deal very effectively with education so far, Dut at least it is certain that the antiquated system which had lasted too long is now swept away for ever. P'iNG Wkn-kuo: Th-e Chinese System of Public Education; Lkwis: IMG:p167_8.png:Chinese characters Educational Conquest of the Far East; Etienne Zi, s.j.. Pratique des Examens litter a ires (Var. Sin., No. 5).